Apple Cider Vinegar Complex 500 mg by Smoky Mountain Nutrition

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Acne. Although there has been interest in using topical apple cider vinegar for acne, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral apple cider vinegar is beneficial for improving endurance during exercise. Details: Preliminary clinical research in a small number of healthy male athletes shows that drinking apple cider vinegar 500 mL one-hour prior to an endurance cycling test does not improve endurance capacity, as measured by respiratory exchange rate, heart rate, or blood levels of ammonia, glucose, or lactate, when compared with a commercial sports drink (103225). It is unknown if apple cider vinegar would improve endurance when compared with a placebo control.
• Atopic dermatitis (eczema). Although there has been interest in using topical apple cider vinegar for eczema, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Cognitive function. Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar to improve cognitive function, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this use.
• Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for COVID-19, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this use.
• Dandruff. Although there has been interest in using topical apple cider vinegar for dandruff, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Dental plaque. It is unclear if topical apple cider vinegar prevents the accumulation of dental plaque. Details: A small clinical study in children aged 3-6 years with cerebral palsy shows that applying apple cider vinegar 5% to their teeth daily for 6 months reduces the accumulation of dental plaque when compared with manual tooth brushing without dental paste (111228). However, the validity of these findings is limited by a lack of blinding and poor study methodology.
• Depression. Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for depression, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral apple cider vinegar is beneficial for improving glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes; evidence is conflicting. Details: Two meta-analyses of mainly lower-quality clinical trials in a variety of populations (i.e., healthy, overweight, or obese individuals or those with type 2 diabetes) show that taking apple cider vinegar daily for up to 12 weeks reduces fasting blood glucose (FBG) levels by about 8-21 mg/dL, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) by 0.5%-0.9%, and total cholesterol by 6-7 mg/dL when compared with control (e.g., water, another beverage, no beverage, or restricted calorie diet). There was no effect on levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, insulin, or on measures of insulin resistance. However, in sub-group analyses limited to patients with type 2 diabetes, the effect of apple cider vinegar on FBG or HbA1c levels is conflicting (106284,112355). Of note, both meta-analyses include studies with heterogeneous populations, varied dosages, and different durations that limit the interpretation of these pooled results. Small clinical studies show varying results. One small open-label clinical study conducted in Iran in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking apple cider vinegar 30 mL daily for 8 weeks reduces HbA1c by about 1.4% but does not impact fasting blood glucose when compared with control (113626). Notably, baseline HbA1c was about 9% in the apple cider vinegar group versus about 8% in the control group. It is unclear if modifications to antidiabetes medications were allowed during study enrollment. Additionally, a very small clinical study shows that taking apple cider vinegar 20 grams with a meal increases postprandial insulin sensitivity and reduces postprandial flux in insulin levels in patients with insulin resistance, but not those with type 2 diabetes, when compared with placebo (17614). Additionally, a very small clinical study shows that taking apple cider vinegar 20 grams with a meal increases postprandial insulin sensitivity and reduces postprandial flux in insulin levels in patients with insulin resistance, but not those with type 2 diabetes, when compared with placebo (17614). It is unclear if the formulation of apple cider vinegar alters its effects. One small crossover study in healthy adults found a modestly greater reduction in postprandial glucose with the use of liquid apple cider vinegar (providing 1.25 grams acetic acid) when compared with apple cider vinegar whole tablets or crushed tablets (providing 1.5 grams acetic acid) or water alone (106285). Larger studies are needed to confirm this finding.
• Dyspepsia. Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for dyspepsia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Gastroparesis. It is unclear if oral apple cider vinegar is beneficial for gastroparesis. Details: A very small clinical study shows that taking apple cider vinegar 30 mL daily worsens the gastric emptying rate in patients with type 1 diabetes and gastroparesis when compared with drinking water (17609).
• Gingivitis. It is unclear if topical apple cider vinegar prevents the development of gingivitis. Details: A small clinical study in children aged 3-6 years with cerebral palsy shows that applying apple cider vinegar 5% to the teeth daily for 6 months reduces gingivitis scores when compared to baseline, with results comparable to manual tooth brushing without dental paste at the end of the study period (111228). However, the validity of these findings is limited by a lack of blinding and poor methodology.
• Herpes zoster (shingles). Although there has been interest in using topical apple cider vinegar for shingles, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Hyperlipidemia. It is unclear whether oral apple cider vinegar is beneficial for hyperlipidemia. Details: A small open-label clinical study conducted in Iran in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking apple cider vinegar 30 mL daily for 8 weeks reduces low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and total cholesterol but does not impact high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol or triglycerides when compared with control (113626).
• Impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for prediabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Insect bite. Although there has been interest in using topical apple cider vinegar for insect bites, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Intestinal parasite infection. Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for intestinal parasite infections, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). It is unclear if oral apple cider vinegar reduces the risk for kidney stones. Details: Some population research suggests that the consumption of fermented vinegar can reduce the risk for kidney stones (97311). However, there is currently no clinical evidence confirming this association, or any studies specifically evaluating the use of apple cider vinegar for this purpose.
• Leg cramps. Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for leg cramps, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral apple cider vinegar is beneficial for obesity. Details: A small clinical study in overweight and obese adults shows that taking apple cider vinegar 15 mL twice daily for 12 weeks along with a calorie-restricted diet helps control appetite and modestly reduces body weight, body mass index (BMI), and hip girth when compared with a restricted calorie diet alone. Taking apple cider vinegar along with dieting also appears to increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels and decrease triglyceride levels, but not low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, when compared to dieting alone (97310). Another small open-label clinical study conducted in Iran in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking apple cider vinegar 30 mL daily for 8 weeks reduces BMI and waist circumference but does not change waist-to-hip ratio when compared with control (113626). The validity of these results are limited by lack of statistical adjustment for multiple comparisons.
• Osteoarthritis. Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for osteoarthritis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Pharyngitis. Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for pharyngitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Rhinosinusitis. Although there has been interest in using oral apple cider vinegar for rhinosinusitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Sunburn. Although there has been interest in using topical apple cider vinegar for sunburn, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Vaginal candidiasis. Although there has been interest in using topical apple cider vinegar for vaginal candidiasis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition.
• Warts. Although there has been interest in using topical apple cider vinegar for warts, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple cider vinegar for this condition. More evidence is needed to rate apple cider vinegar for these uses.

(Read more about APPLE CIDER VINEGAR)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for allergic rhinitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Asthma. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for asthma, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Athletic performance. Oral black pepper has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One small clinical trial in untrained males shows that taking a supplement containing black pepper extract 10 mg, caffeine 400 mg, capsicum extract 66.7 mg, and niacin 40 mg as a single dose prior to exercise does not improve strength, time to exhaustion, or maximal oxygen consumption when compared with placebo (37873).
• Depression. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for depression, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Diarrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for diarrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Dysmenorrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for dysmenorrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Dyspepsia. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for dyspepsia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Fall prevention. It is unclear if inhaling black pepper oil as aromatherapy is beneficial for fall prevention in older adults. Details: One small clinical study in older adults shows that applying black pepper oil near the right side of the nose as an olfactory stimulant improves stability while the eyes are closed during a one-minute trial when compared with the application of water. The improvement with black pepper oil is comparable to the improvement seen with the application of lavender oil (29160). It is unclear if any benefit persists after inhalation of black pepper oil.
• Fatigue. It is unclear if oral black pepper is beneficial in patients with fatigue. Details: One small clinical trial in adults with below-average energy levels shows that taking black pepper 2 grams as a single dose does not improve sustained attention, motivation to perform cognitive tasks, or feelings of mental energy and mental fatigue when compared with placebo (91731).
• Flatulence. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for flatulence, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Headache. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for headache, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Insect bite. Topical black pepper has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: One small clinical trial shows that applying a specific product (Trikatu) containing black pepper, long pepper, and ginger, as well as camphor, eucalyptus oil, and menthol, directly to mosquito bites does not reduce papule size, erythema, edema, or pruritis when compared with a control compound containing the same base ingredients but without the pepper and ginger components (89893).
• Obesity. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for obesity, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Pain (chronic). Although there has been interest in using topical black pepper for chronic pain related to various etiologies, including osteoarthritis, postherpetic neuralgia, and peripheral neuropathy, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for these conditions.
• Rhinosinusitis. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for rhinosinusitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Sexual desire. Although there has been interest in using oral black pepper for increasing sexual desire, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of black pepper for this purpose.
• Smoking cessation. It is unclear if inhaling black pepper essential oil as aromatherapy is effective for smoking cessation. Details: One small clinical trial in adult male smokers who were deprived from smoking overnight shows that inhaling a vapor from the essential oil of black pepper, as needed over a 3-hour period, reduces cigarette cravings, negative feelings, and anxiety when compared with a placebo vapor (29159). Another small clinical study in patients addicted to dipping, chewing, or smoking tobacco shows that placing a drop of black pepper essential oil on tissue paper and inhaling for 2 minutes at least three times a day for 3 days reduces nicotine cravings when compared to baseline (90502).
• Swallowing dysfunction. It is unclear if inhaling black pepper oil as aromatherapy is beneficial in patients with swallowing dysfunction. Details: One small clinical study in post-stroke residents of nursing homes shows that one minute of olfactory stimulation with black pepper oil before each meal for 30 days decreases swallowing reflex latency by 11 seconds and increases the number of swallowing movements by 3.3 when compared to baseline (29161). A small clinical trial in children with neurological disorders who were on long-term enteral nutrition shows that applying black pepper oil to the nostrils or nasal cavity for one minute improves the amount of oral intake and swallowing movement in 63% of patients. Although oral intake increased, the need for enteral nutrition was not eliminated (29162).
• Vitiligo. It is unclear if topical piperine oil, a constituent of black pepper, is beneficial in patients with vitiligo. Details: A small clinical study in patients with vitiligo shows that applying piperine oil 1% daily in addition to receiving narrowband ultraviolet B (NB-UVB) light therapy every other day for 3 months improves repigmentation more rapidly when compared with using NB-UVB alone (103820). More evidence is needed to rate black pepper for these uses.

(Read more about BLACK PEPPER)

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Diabetic neuropathy. Applying a specific prescription patch containing capsaicin 8% or a specific cream containing capsaicin 0.075% can reduce pain in diabetic neuropathy. Details: Clinical research has evaluated the use of a specific patch (Qutenza, NeurogesX Inc.) containing capsaicin 8%, which is approved as a prescription medication by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy. The research in this population shows that a single application of the patch on the painful parts of the feet for 30-90 minutes following pretreatment with topical anesthetics reduces pain for up to 12 weeks when compared with placebo (40719,96453). Patients using the patch experience reduced sleep interference and an average 28% reduction in pain, compared with a 21% reduction with placebo. Additionally, 50% of patients receiving the patch experience pain relief within 19 days, compared to 72 days for those receiving placebo (96453). A meta-analysis of the available clinical research for diabetic peripheral neuropathy found that one-time application of this patch is equally effective to duloxetine 20-120 mg daily, pregabalin 75-600 mg daily, and gabapentin 300-3600 mg daily in producing a 30% or 50% pain reduction. The dose of oral medication used in the evaluated studies did not impact the comparative efficacy of the capsaicin patch (96450). Other clinical research shows that applying cream containing capsaicin 0.075% four times daily for 8 weeks reduces pain intensity when compared with placebo in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy (40547,40592,40607). A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that applying cream containing capsaicin 0.075% reduces pain similarly to 5% lidocaine-medicated plaster (40674). Topical cream containing capsaicin 0.075% (Zostrix-HP, Link Medical Products Pty Ltd.) is FDA-approved as an over-the-counter (OTC) medication for this indication (272). However, applying a capsaicin lotion less frequently or with a lower concentration of capsaicin does not seem to be beneficial. A small clinical study in patients with diabetic neuropathy shows that applying a specific lotion (Capsika-75 lotion, Bangkok Drug Company) containing capsaicin 0.075% three times daily for 8 weeks improves pain to a similar degree as a placebo lotion (102277). This study was limited by a high dropout rate, high placebo effect, and poor adherence to therapy. Furthermore, cream or gel (such as Capsika-25 gel, Bangkok Drug Company) containing lower amounts of capsaicin do not appear to be effective for reducing diabetic peripheral neuropathy pain (92984).
• Pain (chronic). Topical cream containing capsaicin can reduce chronic pain associated with various conditions. Topical capsaicin is FDA-approved for this use. Details: Several clinical studies show that topically applying cream containing capsaicin, the active capsicum constituent, 0.05% to 0.075% temporarily relieves chronic pain from rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, back pain, jaw pain, psoriasis, and neuropathic conditions (12401,17701). Capsaicin, used in topical preparations, is FDA-approved for these uses (272). It can take up to 14 days for the full analgesic effect. For neuropathic pain, the number needed to treat using capsaicin 0.075% for eight weeks is 5.7 (12401). For musculoskeletal pain, for every 8.1 patients treated with capsaicin 0.025%, 1 patient would achieve at least a 50% reduction in pain (12401). Also, applying capsaicin 0.05% (Finalgon CPD Warmecreme) three times daily for 21 days seems to cause a 49% reduction in chronic soft tissue pain when compared with placebo (17701).
• Postherpetic neuralgia. Applying a specific prescription patch containing capsaicin can reduce postherpetic neuralgia pain, especially in patients with the lowest pain scores. Details: Clinical research has evaluated the use of a specific patch (Qutenza, NeurogesX Inc.) containing capsaicin 8%, which is approved as a prescription medication by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. Research in this population shows that applying a single patch for 60-90 minutes reduces average pain over 24 hours by 27% to 37% for up to 12 weeks, compared to only 4.4% to 26% in patients in the control group (40659,40679,40686,40691,40719,40728,40800,92985,96451,96452). The number needed to treat to achieve at least a 30% or 50% reduction in pain intensity is 10 and 12, respectively; the number needed to treat to achieve an additional beneficial outcome over placebo at 8 weeks and 12 weeks is 9 and 7, respectively (40800,96451). The pain reduction with this patch has an onset of a few days after treatment and the effect lasts for about 5 months (92986). However, some evidence shows that the reduction in pain is only significant for patients who have had postherpetic neuralgia for at least 6 months (40686). Additionally, the reduction in pain and duration of response appears to be greatest for patients with lower pain scores and low sensitivity to light touch at baseline, as well as patients not using concomitant systemic neuropathic pain medications, whereas patients with high pain scores, high sensitivity to touch, or those using systemic neuropathic pain medications experience the smallest and least sustained reduction in pain (40728,96458). Also, other evidence suggests that this patch may be less effective at relieving postherpetic neuralgia when compared with 5% lidocaine-medicated plaster (40688).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Back pain. Topical capsicum or capsaicin seems to be beneficial for reducing back pain. Details: A meta-analysis of generally low-quality clinical research, as well as individual studies, show that applying a capsicum-containing plaster providing 11 mg of capsaicin per plaster or 22 mcg of capsaicin per square centimeter of plaster to the back once daily in the morning for 4-8 hours reduces low back pain when compared with placebo (15259,15260,15261). Applying capsaicin 0.05% (Finalgon CPD Warmecreme) three times daily for 21 days seems to cause a 58% reduction in low back pain when compared with placebo (17701). Also, in a mixed group of patients with acute back or neck pain, a large clinical trial shows that four topical applications with a gel containing capsaicin 0.075% with diclofenac 2% every 12 hours modestly reduces pain on motion when compared with diclofenac alone or placebo. The number of patients with at least a 50% reduction in pain from baseline was modestly higher. Capsaicin 0.075% was similarly effective alone and when combined with diclofenac 2% (105202). However, only about half of the patients in this study had back pain.
• Cluster headache. Intranasal capsaicin seems to be beneficial for preventing cluster headaches. Its effect in the treatment of cluster headache is unclear. Details: Some clinical research shows that using the capsicum constituent capsaicin intranasally reduces the frequency of episodic or chronic cluster headache attacks (14323,14351,14352,14358). Capsaicin suspensions of 0.1 mL of a 10 mM suspension, providing 300 mcg/day of capsaicin, has been applied to the ipsilateral nostril. Applications are continued once daily until a burning sensation is no longer experienced (14351,14358). Intranasal application of capsaicin 0.025% (Zostrix, Rodlen Laboratories) might also decrease symptom severity during an acute cluster headache attack. Clinical research shows that daily treatment for 7 days decreases symptom severity over the following week (14353). Ipsilateral, or same side, nostril application of capsaicin appears to be more effective than contralateral application (14351). Due to severe pain associated with intranasal capsaicin administration, pretreatment with intranasal local anesthetic is usually used.
• Nonallergic rhinitis. Intranasal capsaicin in a dose of at least 0.1 mM seems to improve symptoms of nonallergic rhinitis. It is unclear if lower doses of capsaicin are beneficial. Details: Clinical research shows that repeated intranasal in-clinic treatments with capsaicin, the active capsicum constituent, or with capsicum oleoresin, over a period of one to three days, can significantly decrease symptoms of non-allergic, non-infectious perennial rhinitis symptoms (14328,14357,15016,40595,105204,105205). A decrease of symptoms has been observed for up to 6-9 months following these treatments (14328,14357). The following doses have been used: capsaicin 0.15 mg per dose for up to 7 doses over a 14-day period (14328), capsaicin 0.0033 mol once weekly for 5 weeks (14357), capsaicin 15 mcg/0.1 mL applied three times daily for 3 days (15016), and capsaicin 1-4 mcg per puff, applied 3 times in each nostril daily for 3 days (40595). Due to severe pain associated with intranasal capsaicin administration, pretreatment with intranasal local anesthetic is usually used. Personal use of an intranasal spray with a lower dose of capsaicin might also be effective. Clinical research shows that two 0.4 mL puffs with an intranasal spray in each nostril daily for 4 weeks providing capsaicin 0.01 mM, but not 0.001 mM, is more effective than placebo for reducing symptoms of idiopathic rhinitis. This benefit is maintained for an additional 8 weeks. This protocol was at least as effective as receiving five repeated hourly intranasal spray treatments in hospital with capsaicin 0.1 mM (105204).
• Osteoarthritis. The American College of Rheumatology (ACR) conditionally recommends topical capsaicin for knee osteoarthritis, but not for hip or hand osteoarthritis. Details: A meta-analysis of 4 preliminary clinical trials shows that using topical capsaicin 0.025% four times daily has modest benefit for osteoarthritis when compared with placebo. Using capsaicin 0.0125% doesn't seem to be effective (102408). The American College of Rheumatology (ACR) conditionally recommends topical capsaicin for knee osteoarthritis. However, it does not recommend its use for hip osteoarthritis due to the depth of the joint beneath the skin surface, nor for hand osteoarthritis, due to the risk for contamination of the eye (102114).
• Pain (acute). Topical capsicum seems to be beneficial for reducing acute pain due to trauma. Details: Clinical research in patients with trauma-related acute pain shows that topical application with a gel (Sanli Gel) containing capsaicin 0.05% three times daily for 3 days reduces pain by at least 50% in 87% of patients, compared with 63% of those using a piroxicam gel 0.5% (Felden). There was also a significantly greater number of patients with a final pain score of 4 or less. In the capsaicin group, only 12% of patients did not achieve either of these endpoints, compared with 31% in the group receiving piroxicam (105197).
• Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV). Applying topical capsicum to acupoints seems to be beneficial for preventing PONV. Details: Clinical research shows that applying a capsicum-containing plaster to acupoints on the hand and forearm 30 minutes prior to anesthesia and leaving in place for 6-8 hours daily for up to 3 days after surgery reduces the incidence of PONV by about 29% to 36% when compared to control (40405,40483,40610). Plasters used in these studies included Sinsin PAS (Sinsin Pharm Co.), which is standardized to contain capsicum 345.8 mg and capsicum tincture 34.58 mg per sheet (40405,40610); and Johnson's Perforated Capsicum Plaster (Johnson & Johnson Ltd.), which is standardized to contain capsicum oleoresin 1% w/w (40483).
• Postoperative pain. Applying topical capsicum-containing plaster to acupoints seems to be beneficial for reducing postoperative pain. It is unclear if a capsicum patch or capsaicin instillation prior to wound closure is beneficial for reducing postoperative pain. Details: Some clinical research shows that applying a capsicum-containing plaster to acupoints on the hands or near the knees of adults or children 30 minutes prior to anesthesia, and leaving in place for 6-8 hours daily for up to 3 days after surgery, reduces the amount of rescue analgesics needed by 29% to 39% within the first 24 hours and by 16% to 19% within the first 48 hours when compared to control (40405,40483,40520,40524,40610). The capsicum-containing plaster used in these studies (Sinsin PAS, Sinsin Pharm Co.) is standardized to contain capsicum 345.8 mg and capsicum tincture 34.58 mg per sheet (40520,40610). Other preliminary clinical research shows that applying a single patch containing the capsicum constituent capsaicin 8% (Qutenza, NeurogesX Inc.) for 30-60 minutes leads to an improvement in overall health status and an average 22% reduction in pain that lasts up to 12 weeks in patients with postoperative and posttraumatic neuropathic pain. Patches were applied to various parts of the body, including the legs, torso, feet, hands, arms, head, and neck, and the reduction in pain continued with the use of a second and third patch application. The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a control group (96452). Other clinical evidence suggests that instilling capsaicin 15 mg during surgery immediately prior to wound closure reduces the need for pain medication for up to 2 weeks postoperatively when compared with placebo (40741).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). It is unclear if intranasal capsaicin is beneficial for preventing allergic rhinitis symptoms. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that intranasal treatment with cotton wads soaked in the active capsicum constituent capsaicin 30 mcM, applied for 15 minutes and repeated over two days, reduces the severity of experimentally-induced allergic rhinitis. The severity of symptoms seems to be reduced for up to 2 months after treatment (14324). However, contradictory research shows that patients with allergic rhinitis caused by house dust mites do not have significantly improved symptoms after using a capsaicin solution providing 0.15 mg/dose for up to 7 doses over a 14-day period when compared with placebo (14360).
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, Lou Gehrig's disease). Although there is interest in using oral capsicum for ALS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of capsicum for this condition.
• Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral capsaicin is beneficial for improving athletic performance; the available research is limited to small, conflicting studies. Details: Several small clinical studies in physically active young adults show that taking capsaicin might improve some measures of athletic performance, but results are mixed overall (99409,99410,102276,105191,105198,105200). A meta-analysis of these and several other small clinical studies shows that taking the capsicum constituents capsaicin or capsiate 45 minutes before exercise improves measures of muscular endurance but does not improve aerobic endurance when compared with placebo. Doses of the capsicum constituents ranged from 1.2-24 mg, with most studies assessing a single 12 mg dose (111515). The included studies have a number of methodological problems that limit the validity of the findings, such as a small sample size, short study duration, and insufficient blinding. Also, most of the study participants were male. Other small clinical studies not included in the meta-analysis also show conflicting results. One small clinical study in untrained young adults undergoing resistance training shows that taking capsiate, a capsaicin analog, 6 mg orally twice daily for 6 weeks improves upper body, but not lower body, weightlifting performance when compared with placebo (109024). However, another small clinical trial in experienced male athletes shows that taking cayenne (GNC Nature's Fingerprint Cayenne Herbal Supplement) 3 grams, providing capsaicin 25.8 mg, daily for 7 days does not improve sprint time, rate of perceived exertion, or muscle soreness over three days when compared with placebo (105206). Capsicum has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients. One small clinical study in untrained males shows that taking a supplement containing capsicum extract 66.7 mg, caffeine 400 mg, black pepper extract 10 mg, and niacin 40 mg prior to exercising does not improve strength, time to exhaustion, or maximal oxygen consumption when compared with placebo (37873).
• Burning mouth syndrome. It is unclear if applying topical capsaicin in the mouth is beneficial for burning mouth syndrome. Details: Preliminary clinical studies show that using 15 mL of a mouth rinse containing the active capsicum constituent capsaicin 0.02% for 30 seconds daily for 7-21 days modestly decreases burning discomfort when compared to baseline in patients with burning mouth syndrome (92991,105195). Other preliminary clinical research shows that applying 0.5 mL of a gel containing capsaicin 0.01% or 0.025% to the tongue three times daily for 14 days modestly reduces pain when compared to baseline in patients with burning mouth syndrome. The gel is spread with a cotton swab, and no food or drink is consumed for 30 minutes after application (96456). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a control group, the small number of patients, and occasionally unclear statistical comparisons.
• Cancer. It is unclear if eating more chili is beneficial for preventing mortality due to cancer. Details: Population research has found that consuming chili more than four times weekly is not associated with a reduced odds of cancer mortality (105208). Also, other population research has found that any consumption of hot red chili peppers is not associated with a reduced odds of mortality related to cancer (105210).
• Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS). Preliminary clinical research suggests that topical capsaicin might be beneficial for reducing symptoms of CHS. Details: One small clinical study in adults presenting to an emergency department (ED) with CHS shows that applying 5 grams of a cream containing capsaicin 0.1% to the abdomen modestly reduces nausea severity at 60 minutes, but not 30 minutes, when compared with a placebo cream. Nausea was completely resolved in 29% of patients, compared with 0% of those using the placebo cream. However, there was no difference in vomiting at 30 or 120 minutes (105193). This study may not have been adequately powered to detect a difference in some of these outcomes. A meta-analysis of two small, low-quality studies involving the topical use of capsaicin on the abdomen, chest, and possibly back, shows that the mean time to resolution of symptoms was 326 minutes and the mean length of stay in the emergency department was 379 minutes. However, it is unclear how these times compare to the use of placebo or standard antiemetics. This study also conducted a systematic review of the available literature, which indicates that the creams most commonly used in research provide 0.025% to 0.1% capsaicin (105201). Two low-quality, retrospective reviews also suggest that capsaicin cream may be beneficial for CHS. A retrospective review of patients in the ED with CHS has found that applying capsaicin cream 0.025% is associated with a 39% shorter time to discharge when compared with control. Patients treated with capsaicin also required fewer additional rescue treatments when compared with control (109021). Another retrospective review of patients in the ED with CHS also suggests that capsaicin cream 0.025% modestly reduces abdominal pain when compared with baseline. However, 47% and 28% of patients, respectively, received additional antiemetics or an opioid after the use of the cream (105345).
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is unclear if eating more chili is beneficial for preventing mortality due to CVD. Details: Population research has found that consuming chili more than four times weekly is associated with a 34% reduced odds of CVD mortality when compared with never or rarely consuming chili, as well as 44% and 61% reduced odds of ischemic heart disease and cerebrovascular death, respectively (105208). Other population research has found that consumption of hot red chili peppers is not associated with a reduced odds of mortality related to CVD when compared with not eating hot red chili peppers (105210).
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral capsaicin is beneficial for gestational diabetes. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking chili powder containing capsaicin 5 mg daily for 4 weeks modestly reduces total cholesterol levels and reduces postprandial blood glucose levels by an average of 36 mg/dL and postprandial insulin levels by an average of 14 IU/L in patients with gestational diabetes. Compared to a placebo group, these changes are significant. However, capsaicin intake does not alter fasting plasma glucose or insulin levels (96457).
• Dry skin. It is unclear if oral capsicum is beneficial for dry skin. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adult females with low skin moisture shows that taking paprika oil extract 400 mg, standardized to include 9 mg of xanthophyll, orally daily for 4 weeks improves skin moisture and viscoelasticity scores, but not the number of wrinkles, when compared with control (109026).
• Dyslipidemia. It is unclear if oral capsicum is beneficial for reducing lipid levels. Details: A meta-analysis of three or four mainly small clinical trials in healthy adults shows that taking capsicum does not improve levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, or high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol when compared with no treatment or placebo. However, there was a small to moderate effect on levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Freshly chopped chili or fermented red pepper were studied for 4 and 12 weeks, respectively (105194). It is unclear if capsicum can lower lipid levels in patients with dyslipidemia or hyperlipidemia.
• Dyspepsia. It is unclear if oral capsicum is beneficial for dyspepsia. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking red pepper powder 2.5 grams daily in three divided doses for 5 weeks reduces symptoms of functional dyspepsia when compared with placebo. However, in some patients, there seems to be a worsening of symptoms prior to any improvement (12410).
• Fibromyalgia. It is unclear if oral capsicum is beneficial for fibromyalgia. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that applying cream containing the active capsicum constituent capsaicin 0.025% four times daily to tender points for 4 weeks reduces localized tenderness in patients with fibromyalgia (7038). Other preliminary clinical research shows that applying capsaicin 0.075% cream (Sensedol) three times daily to tender points for 6 weeks in addition to standard therapy increases the pain threshold when compared with standard therapy in patients with severe fibromyalgia (92979). However, capsaicin does not appear to reduce overall pain or improve physical function in patients with fibromyalgia (7038,92979). Also, the long-term effects of capsaicin on fibromyalgia-related pain are unclear.
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Although there is interest in using oral capsicum for GERD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of capsicum for this condition.
• HIV/AIDS-related peripheral neuropathy. It is unclear if topical capsaicin is beneficial for this condition. Details: There is conflicting evidence regarding the effects of Qutenza (NeurogesX Inc.), which contains the active constituent of capsicum, capsaicin 8%. Although some research shows it reduces pain in patients with HIV and peripheral neuropathy (22395), other research shows no significant benefit (40746). A meta-analysis of results from both of these studies shows that applying a single capsaicin 8% patch for 30-90 minutes reduces pain intensity by at least 30% in about 30% more patients when compared to control (40800). Additional meta-analyses of the results from these two studies suggests that pain reduction with capsaicin begins a few days after treatment and lasts for about 5 months, with a number needed to treat of 11 to achieve at least a 30% reduction in pain intensity (92986,96451). Reduction in pain and duration of response appears to be greatest for females with lower pain scores at baseline, whereas males with high pain scores at baseline experience the smallest and least sustained reduction in pain (96458). Some research has also evaluated topical capsaicin 0.075%. One small clinical study shows that applying this cream does not relieve symptoms of HIV-associated peripheral neuropathy when compared with placebo (3891).
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral capsicum is beneficial for lowering blood pressure. Details: Two meta-analyses of small clinical trials show that taking capsicum as freshly chopped chili, fermented red pepper, red pepper capsules, or capsinoid capsules orally daily for 4-12 weeks does not reduce systolic or diastolic blood pressure when compared with control. However, most subjects included in these clinical trials did not have hypertension (105194,109025).
• Intermetatarsal neuroma. It is unclear if injecting capsaicin into the third intermetatarsal space is beneficial for intermetatarsal neuroma. Details: Clinical research in adults with intermetatarsal neuroma shows that a single injection of capsaicin 0.1 mg into the third intermetatarsal space 5 minutes after administration of 2 mL of lidocaine 2% with epinephrine leads to a modest reduction in pain at weeks 1 and 4, but not weeks 2 and 3, when compared with placebo. Capsaicin also reduces the extent to which pain interferes with walking and mood, but not with work, sleep, relationships, or general activity (96454).
• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). It is unclear if oral capsicum is beneficial for IBS. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking ground guajillo chili 1 gram, containing capsaicin 0.112%, with each meal for 7 days does not reduce symptoms of IBS (12403). A small clinical study shows that taking chili (Nguan Soon Co., Ltd.) 2.1 grams, providing 2.5 mg capsaicin, daily before meals for 6 weeks does not improve abdominal burning, fecal urgency, or abdominal pain or bloating after a spicy meal. However, there was a modest reduction in abdominal burning after a spicy meal (105207). This study may not have been adequately powered to detect a difference in some of these outcomes.
• Laryngitis. Although there is interest in gargling with capsicum for laryngitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of capsicum for this condition.
• Motion sickness. Although there is interest in oral capsicum for motion sickness, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of capsicum for this condition.
• Myofascial pain syndrome. It is unclear if topical capsaicin is beneficial for myofascial pain syndrome. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that applying a specific capsaicin cream (Dipental Cream, Dalim BioTech) containing capsaicin 0.25 mg/gram along with a ketoprofen 30 mg patch (KetotopVRPlaster, Pacific Pharma) to the trapezius does not reduce pain when compared with a ketoprofen patch alone in patients with myofascial pain (92983).
• Neck pain. It is unclear if topical capsaicin is beneficial for neck pain. Details: In a group of patients with acute back or neck pain, a large clinical trial shows that four topical applications with a gel containing capsaicin 0.075% with diclofenac 2% every 12 hours modestly reduces pain on motion when compared with diclofenac alone or placebo. The number of patients with at least a 50% reduction in pain from baseline was modestly higher. Capsaicin 0.075% was similarly effective alone or when combined with diclofenac 2% (105202). However, only about half of the patients in this study had neck pain.
• Neuropathic pain. It is unclear if topical capsicum is beneficial for neuropathic pain. Details: A very small study in adults with neuropathic pain secondary to spinal cord injury shows that applying a patch containing the capsicum constituent capsaicin 8% for 60 minutes daily to the affected area for 12 weeks reduces pain at weeks 2 and 4 and improves mobility, but not quality of life, for up to 12 weeks when compared with placebo (111517). The validity of these findings is limited by insufficient blinding and the small sample size.
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral capsicum is beneficial for obesity. Details: A meta-analysis of 3-5 small clinical trials shows that taking capsicum does not reduce body weight, body fat, or body mass index (BMI) in individuals with a BMI of at least 25 kg/m2 when compared with placebo or no treatment. Freshly chopped chili, fermented red pepper, or capsicum constituents were studied for 4-12 weeks (105194). In one clinical trial included in the analysis, taking capsinoids 3 mg twice daily 30 minutes prior to eating for 12 weeks reduced abdominal fat by about 1%, but did not significantly reduce body weight, when compared with placebo (40599). In overweight individuals, one small clinical trial shows that taking a specific chili extract 200 mg, formulated with fenugreek dietary fiber for sustained release (Capsifen, Akay Natural Ingredients), providing capsaicinoids 4 mg daily for 28 days reduces body weight and BMI by about 2% when compared with placebo. There was no effect on blood pressure (105196). Capsicum has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients, with some evidence of benefit. One study evaluated a combination product (Prograde Metabolism) containing capsicum extract (Capsimax, OmniActive Health Technologies), raspberry ketone (Razberi K, Integrity Nutraceuticals), caffeine, garlic root extract, ginger root extract, bitter orange fruit (Advantra Z, Nutratech Inc), L-theanine, and black pepper fruit extract (Biperine, Sabinsa Corporation) twice daily for 8 weeks (40802).
• Overall mortality. Eating chili may be beneficial for preventing mortality. It is unclear if taking capsicum supplements is beneficial for preventing overall mortality. Details: Population research has found that consuming chili is associated with a reduced risk of overall mortality. In one study, eating chili more than four times weekly was associated with a 23% reduced odds of overall mortality when compared with never or rarely consuming chili (105208). Other population research has found that any consumption of hot red chili peppers is associated with a 13% reduced odds of mortality when compared with not eating these peppers (105210). Also, eating spicy foods at least once each week, consisting mainly of fresh chili pepper, dried chili pepper, chili sauce, or chili oil, was associated with at least a 10% reduced risk of death when compared with eating these foods less than once a week (105211).
• Peptic ulcers. It is unclear if oral capsicum is beneficial for peptic ulcers. Details: Population research has found that eating capsicum fruit (chili) an average of 24 times per month is associated with a reduced likelihood of having an ulcer when compared with eating chili an average of 8 times per month. This applies to chili in the form of chili powder, chili sauce, curry powder, and other chili-containing foods (12053). However, clinical research shows that consuming chili peppers 1 gram three times daily for 4 weeks does not improve duodenal ulcer healing when compared to control (40828).
• Peripheral neuropathy. Preliminary clinical research suggests that topical capsaicin might be beneficial for reducing peripheral neuropathy pain. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that applying patches containing the capsicum constituent capsaicin 8% (Qutenza, NeurogesX Inc.) reduces pain in people with non-diabetic peripheral neuropathy (96452,111516). Up to four patches, applied to different painful areas, are used at one time and are left in place for 30 minutes on the feet, or 60 minutes on other parts of the body such as the legs, torso, hands, arms, head, or neck (96452). After an interval of at least 90 days, treatment can be repeated, with new patches applied for 30-60 minutes (99407). There is an average 27% reduction in pain when compared to baseline, lasting up to 12 weeks (96452). Another similar study reported a decrease of 1 point, on a 10-point pain scale, in the typical daily pain intensity (99407). The validity of these findings is limited by methodological problems, including the lack of control groups. Further research shows that using a single application of up to four capsaicin 8% patches for 30-60 minutes, or taking pregabalin orally, 150-600 mg in 2-3 divided doses daily for 8 weeks, reduces the intensity and area of dynamic mechanical allodynia (DMA, pain evoked by light brushing of the skin) in people with non-diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Complete resolution of DMA occurred in 24% of people using the patches, and 12% of those taking pregabalin (99408). The validity of these findings is limited by methodological problems, including a lack of blinding.
• Prurigo nodularis. It is unclear if topical capsaicin is beneficial for prurigo nodularis. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that applying a cream containing the active capsicum constituent, capsaicin 0.025% to 0.3%, 4-6 times daily improves burning sensations, erythema, pruritus, and healing of skin lesions over a period of 2 weeks to 33 months when compared to baseline. Symptoms may return after discontinuation of therapy (10650).
• Sinonasal polyposis. It is unclear if intranasal capsaicin is beneficial for sinonasal polyposis. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with severe sinonasal polyposis shows that intranasal application of 0.5 mL of a 30 mmol/L capsaicin solution to each nostril for 3 days, followed by 0.5 mL of a 100 mmol/L capsaicin solution for 2 days, can cause significant subjective improvement in symptoms as well as objective improvement in nose/sinus air volume and endoscopy scores; however, capsaicin does not seem to significantly affect eosinophil cationic protein levels (14359).
• Swallowing dysfunction. Preliminary research shows that oral capsaicin might be beneficial for improving swallowing ability. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that elderly patients at risk for aspiration pneumonia due to swallowing dysfunction have improved swallowing reflexes after dissolving a lozenge containing capsaicin 1.5 mcg in the mouth before each meal when compared with using a placebo lozenge (13100). Preliminary clinical research also shows that capsaicin may be beneficial in patients with swallowing dysfunction due to stroke (102278,105192). One study shows that taking 1 mL of nectar containing capsaicin 150 mcM/L with each meal daily for 3 weeks, in addition to thermal tactile stimulation, improves eating and swallowing when compared with using thermal tactile stimulation and placebo nectar (102278). Another study shows that 20 minutes of stimulation with an ice swab containing capsaicin 0.15 mM before lunch and dinner daily for three weeks modestly improves the ability to swallow water when compared with ice stimulation alone. After treatment, approximately 70% of those using the capsaicin ice were able to drink the water without choking, compared with only 33% in those using ice alone (105192). Capsaicin solution has also been administered by nebulizer. A clinical study in patients with swallowing dysfunction secondary to hemorrhagic stroke shows that inhaling capsaicin solution twice daily for one week reduces the incidence of post-swallow residue and pulmonary infection and increases number of coughs in response to capsaicin compared with placebo. However, treatment with nebulized capsaicin does not reduce the number of patients with swallow or cough reflexes compared with control (111518). More evidence is needed to rate capsicum for these uses.

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POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Constipation. Most clinical research shows that oral inulin modestly improves stool frequency, but may not improve discomfort, in adults and children with constipation. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in adults with constipation shows that consuming inulin improves stool frequency by approximately 0.7 stools per week. It also seems to improve stool transit time, consistency, and hardness, but does not reduce pain or bloating (93718). Additional clinical research shows that taking a specific type of inulin (OraftiGR, BENEO GmbH) 12 grams daily in three divided doses for 4 weeks increases stool frequency by approximately one stool per week when compared with a maltodextrin control. Taking inulin also reduces the number of patients experiencing hard and lumpy stools by 13%, but does not improve symptoms of bloating, distension, physical discomfort, or gas (96850). In children aged 2-5 years, one small clinical study shows that taking a specific combination of two inulin products (Orafti P95 oligofructose and Orafti GR inulin, BENEO GmbH), 2 grams twice daily in a dairy liquid for 6 weeks, improves the softness of stools, but not pain with stooling or stool frequency, when compared with a maltodextrin control (96848). Research in older adults is conflicting. One small study shows that taking inulin 20-40 grams daily for 19 days increases the number of stools from 1-2 per week to 8-9 per week (10415). However, other preliminary clinical research in this population shows that taking a specific inulin supplement (Fibruline Instant, Cosucra Groupe Warcoing) 15 grams daily in yogurt or stewed fruit for 4 weeks does not improve bowel symptoms, stool frequency, or stool consistency (93724).
• Diabetes. Short-term use of oral inulin along with antidiabetes drugs may improve glycemic control in some patients with type 2 diabetes; however, the benefits of long-term use are unclear. Details: Two meta-analyses of clinical research in normal weight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes show that taking inulin 0.8-10 grams orally daily for 6-12 weeks reduces glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) by 0.65% and fasting plasma glucose by 16 mg/dL when compared with control. Taking inulin also improved HOMA-IR, a measure of insulin resistance, when compared with control. Researchers did not evaluate the most effective dose of inulin; however, most studies used 8.4-10 grams daily (103198,105533). In females treated with metformin and glyburide, taking inulin 10 grams daily for 8 weeks reduces fasting blood glucose by 15 mg/dL and HbA1c by 1% when compared with placebo (93719). Population research in adults has also found that high dietary intake of inulin over 8 years of follow up is associated with a 6% lower risk of type 2 diabetes when compared with low dietary intake (110515). Inulin has also been studied in combination with other supplements. Preliminary clinical research in elderly patients with diabetes shows that drinking a milk powder product supplemented with inulin and resistant dextrin 30 grams before breakfast and 15 grams before dinner for 12 weeks decreases fasting plasma glucose by 17 mg/dL, HbA1c by 0.38%, postprandial glucose by 27 mg/dL, body weight by 0.8 kg, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure by 5 mmHg when compared with placebo (99843). Other clinical research in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking a specific combination product (Orafti Synergy1, BENEO GmbH), containing 50% inulin and 50% fructo-oligosaccharides, 8 grams orally twice daily for 6 weeks does not reduce body weight or caloric intake or increase satiety scores when compared with placebo (107934).
• Obesity. Oral inulin might modestly improve short-term weight loss. Additional research is needed to determine the long-term effects of inulin on weight loss and weight maintenance in overweight or obese individuals. Details: Some clinical research in overweight and obese females with diabetes shows that taking inulin 10 grams daily for 8 weeks results in weight loss of 2.6 kg, compared with no weight loss in those taking placebo (93719). Preliminary clinical research in overweight or obese patients with prediabetes shows that taking a specific brand of inulin (Orafti Synergy 1, BENEO GmbH) 30 grams orally daily for 6 weeks reduces body weight by 0.4 kg, compared with a 0.4 kg increase in those in the control group (93721). Preliminary clinical research in adults with obesity shows that taking inulin 16 grams orally daily for 3 months moderately reduces body weight and body mass index (BMI) when compared with placebo. However, these effects were most prominent in subjects that also increased physical activity (110514). Additional preliminary clinical research in adults with overweight shows that adding 18 grams of inulin powder to green tea daily increases weight loss when compared with green tea alone. Over six weeks, individuals taking inulin lost 2 kg, compared with no weight loss in those taking green tea. Weight loss was maintained for at least 2 weeks (93726). Clinical trials in children show conflicting results. In children aged 7-12 years, a small clinical study shows that taking a specific oligofructose-enriched inulin product (Orafti Synergy1, BENEO GmbH) 8 grams orally in water before one meal daily for 16 weeks decreases weight gain by 2.4-fold and attenuates an increase in BMI when compared with placebo (96847). However, other preliminary clinical research in children with obesity aged 7-15 years shows that taking inulin extract 13 grams orally daily for 6 months does not reduce body weight or BMI when compared with placebo (110598). However, other clinical research shows that taking inulin orally in combination with other ingredients might not improve weight loss. Combining inulin, chromium picolinate, capsicum, L-phenylalanine, and other nutrients with caloric reduction and exercise doesn't seem to reduce weight in moderately obese patients when compared to caloric reduction and exercise alone (7607). Another preliminary clinical trial shows that taking inulin 10 grams with maltodextrin 10 grams daily for 12 weeks does not reduce body weight or improve body composition when compared with placebo in adults with overweight or obesity following a calorie-restricted diet (103202). Preliminary clinical research in adults with obesity also shows that consuming a seafood-based dietary product fortified with inulin 1.7 grams, fish oil 370 mg (containing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and bifidobacterium animalis daily for 12 weeks does not lower body weight, waist circumference, abdominal fat, serum cholesterol levels, or blood pressure when compared with placebo. However, consuming the product modestly improved some markers of insulin resistance (110600).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Alcohol use disorder. It is unclear if oral inulin is beneficial in patients with alcohol use disorder. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with alcohol use disorder who were recently admitted to the hospital shows that taking a specific inulin product (Fibruline, Cosucra) 4-16 grams orally daily for 17 days does not improve liver function tests when compared with placebo. Some liver function tests were also worse in those treated with inulin (110601).
• Antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Oral inulin has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in children aged 6 months to 14 years receiving antibiotics for common infections shows that taking a combination of inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides, up to 5 grams daily depending on age, does not reduce the rate of antibiotic-associated diarrhea (93720).
• Celiac disease. Small clinical studies suggest that patients with celiac disease who take oral inulin may have a lower risk of vitamin and mineral deficiency. Details: Preliminary clinical research in a small number of children and adolescents with vitamin and mineral malabsorption due to celiac disease shows that taking a specific oligofructose-enriched inulin product (Orafti Synergy 1, BENEO GmbH) 10 grams daily for 3 months improves the absorption of vitamin D, vitamin E, and iron, but not vitamin A (99841,99842). Levels of 25-hydroxy vitamin D and vitamin E increased by 42% and 19%, respectively, compared with no significant improvements in those taking placebo (99842). Although taking inulin did not improve serum ferritin levels, it did decrease serum hepcidin concentrations by 61% when compared with baseline, while no significant improvement was reported with placebo. Hepcidin is a regulator of iron homeostasis, and increased levels are associated with iron-deficiency anemia (99841).
• Child growth. Oral inulin has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in healthy, exclusively formula-fed, infants less than 4 months of age shows that supplementing formula with 0.8 grams/dL of a specific combination product (Orafti Synergy1, Beneo-Orafti) containing 50% inulin and 50% fructo-oligosaccharide until 12 months of age does not improve markers of child growth, including body weight, length, and head circumference, when compared with placebo. The combination product was associated with a reduced duration of fever during infectious episodes, but not with a reduction in the number of infections. It is unclear if any potential effects are due to inulin, fructo-oligosaccharide, or the combination (107937).
• Chronic kidney disease (CKD). It is unclear if oral inulin is beneficial in patients with CKD. Details: In adults with CKD, adding inulin 19 grams daily for 6 months to a low-protein diet reduces serum insulin, fasting plasma glucose, total serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and markers of systemic inflammation, while increasing serum high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, when compared with baseline (105534). However, it is unclear if similar changes occur with a low-protein diet alone, or if the rate of progression of CKD is reduced. Population research in adults has found that high dietary intake of inulin over 8 years of follow up is not associated with a lower risk of CKD when compared with low dietary intake (110515).
• Hypercholesterolemia. It is unclear if oral inulin reduces cholesterol levels in patients with hypercholesterolemia. Details: Research in patients with hypercholesterolemia has shown mixed results, with some studies showing a small decrease and others showing no improvement in serum cholesterol levels (7604,8450,10412,10413,96849). A typical dose of inulin used is 6 grams orally three times daily for up to 6 weeks (10412). A meta-analysis of healthy, dyslipidemic, overweight or diabetic patients shows that inulin reduces levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by approximately 5% (96849). Another meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials in the same population shows that taking inulin 1.5-30 grams daily for 2-12 weeks reduces LDL cholesterol levels by 7 mg/dL and increases high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels by 2 mg/mL when compared with control. However, this meta-analysis also included data from patients treated with fructo-oligosaccharides instead of inulin (107940).
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral inulin is beneficial in patients with hypertension. Details: Population research in adults has found that high dietary intake of inulin over 8 years of follow up is associated with a 21% lower risk of hypertension when compared with low dietary intake (110515).
• Hypertriglyceridemia. It is unclear if oral inulin is beneficial in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical trials in normal and moderately hyperlipidemic patients suggests that taking inulin-type fructans at an approximate average dose of 14 grams daily reduces triglyceride levels by about 15 mg/dL when compared with control (93737). However, other research, including a meta-analysis of healthy, dyslipidemic, overweight or diabetic patients shows that taking inulin 1.5-30 grams daily for 2-12 weeks does not reduce triglyceride levels when compared with control. However, these negative studies are limited by small sample sizes and inclusion of data from patients treated with fructo-oligosaccharides instead of inulin (7604,107940).
• Impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). Several small clinical studies suggest that oral inulin is not beneficial in patients with prediabetes. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with prediabetes shows that taking inulin 15 grams orally daily for 24 weeks does not improve fasting blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), or lipid levels when compared with placebo. However, taking inulin modestly improved markers of insulin resistance (107938). Two other, small, clinical trials show that taking specific inulin products (Orafti Synergy 1, BENEO GmbH or Frutafit IQ, Sensus American) 10-30 grams daily for 6 weeks does not improve blood glucose, insulin resistance, glucose homeostasis, or insulin sensitivity when compared with placebo (93721,107936). However, these studies may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups.
• Iron deficiency anemia. Oral inulin has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in young adult females with iron deficiency anemia shows that taking inulin 963 mg/kg and iron supplementation orally daily for 3 months modestly improves serum hemoglobin, hematocrit, and iron levels when compared with a control group consuming iron-fortified flour (110599).
• Menopausal symptoms. It is unclear if oral inulin is beneficial in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults experiencing menopause shows that consuming yogurt enriched with a specific inulin (Frutafit TEX, Sensus Company) 1.5% daily for 6 weeks moderately improves menopausal symptom scores, including depression, anxiety, and vasomotor symptoms, when compared with yogurt alone (107659).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Taking oral inulin alone does not seem to improve liver transaminase levels in patients with NAFLD. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with NAFLD shows that taking metronidazole 400 mg twice daily for one week plus inulin 4 grams twice daily for 12 weeks reduces levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase when compared with placebo. However, when inulin is taken without metronidazole, these measures are not improved (103200).
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It is unclear if oral inulin is beneficial in patients with PCOS. Details: Preliminary clinical research in overweight or obese females with PCOS shows that taking specific products containing inulin (FrutaFit TEX, Sensus American) or inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides (FrutaFit IQ, Sensus American) 10 grams orally once daily for 12 weeks does not reduce systolic or diastolic blood pressure when compared with placebo. However, the validity of this study is limited by the inclusion of subjects with and without hypertension at baseline (107941). More evidence is needed to rate inulin for these uses.

(Read more about INULIN)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). Lemon has only been evaluated in combination with quince in a nasal spray for hay fever; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with grass pollen allergy shows that using a specific nasal spray (Gencydo, Weleda AG) containing lemon and quince three times daily for 7 days does not improve the symptoms of allergic rhinitis when compared with placebo. In this study, using the nasal spray reduced airway resistance during inspiration at 10 and 20 minutes after pollen exposure, and reduced airway resistance during expiration at 20 minutes after pollen exposure (98826).
• Anxiety. It is unclear if aromatherapy with lemon essential oil reduces test anxiety. Details: A small clinical study in first year nursing students in Turkey shows that administering aromatherapy with lemon essential oil for 15 minutes prior to an exam reduces test anxiety scores when compared with control students (110779). However, it is unclear whether any improvements are clinically significant or lead to improved test scores.
• Halitosis. Lemon essential oil has only been evaluated in combination with other essential oils; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary research in males with dementia in a long-term care facility shows that cleaning the tongue, gums, and teeth with a solution of lemon, peppermint, and tea tree essential oils twice daily for 7 days improves oral condition, measured on the Korean Oral Assessment Guide scale, increases salivary pH into the normal range, and decreases halitosis score when compared with saline control. On a scale of 0 to 5, the essential oil mixture reduced the halitosis score by 1.24 points, compared with 0.2 points for the control (112957).
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral lemon is beneficial in patients with high blood pressure. Details: A small, prospective, population study in middle-aged Japanese women has found that increased lemon intake is associated with a modest reduction in systolic, but not diastolic, blood pressure (93471).
• Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). It is unclear if oral lemon juice is beneficial for recurrent idiopathic calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. Details: A randomized, controlled trial in patients with recurrent idiopathic calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis shows that taking fresh lemon juice 60 mL orally twice daily for 2 years with a standard diet does not improve the time to stone recurrence when compared with no supplementation. The validity of these findings is limited due to poor patient adherence, which declined from 79% at 6 months, to 68% at 1 year, and 48% at 2 years. When restricted to a 1-year follow-up, stone recurrence occurred in 10% of patients taking lemon juice, compared with 21% of patients in the control group; this difference was statistically significant (107489).
• Meniere disease. Although there is interest in using lemon orally for Meniere disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of lemon for this condition.
• Myocardial infarction (MI). It is unclear if aromatherapy with lemon essential oil is beneficial in patients with acute MI. Details: A small clinical study in hospitalized patients with acute MI shows that administering aromatherapy with lemon essential oil over 3 days moderately reduces systolic blood pressure, but not diastolic blood pressure, when compared with a paraffin control. Heart rate and anxiety were reduced by a small amount the day following the completion of lemon aromatherapy (103455).
• Nausea and vomiting. It is unclear if aromatherapy with lemon oil is beneficial in palliative care patients with nausea and vomiting. Details: A small observational study in hospitalized palliative care patients with advanced cancer has found that administering aromatherapy with lemon oil pads relieves nausea and vomiting in 73% of applications (110778). The interpretation of these findings is limited by the use of a retrospective chart review and the lack of a comparator group.
• Obesity. Although there is interest in using lemon orally for obesity, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of lemon for this condition.
• Oral mucositis. Lemon has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A randomized, controlled trial in patients with head and neck cancer receiving external beam radiotherapy 5 days weekly shows that using a 2:1 oral honey-lemon throat spray four to eight times daily, beginning 1 day prior to radiotherapy initiation and continuing for 5 weeks, does not improve severity of mucositis when compared with oral benzydamine hydrochloride throat spray applied four to eight times daily. The actual rate of oral mucositis occurrence is 65% in those receiving the honey-lemon spray, compared with 35% with the benzydamine hydrochloride spray; however, this difference was not statistically significant (107487). This study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups. Also, the validity of these findings is limited due to the lack of objective outcome measures.
• Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV). It is unclear if aromatherapy with lemon essential oil is beneficial in patients with PONV. Details: Preliminary research in patients undergoing lower extremity fracture surgery shows that aromatherapy with lemon essential oil started the morning of surgery, then every 2 hours to the end of surgery, in the recovery room, and 16 hours after surgery reduces the frequency, severity, and amount of PONV, and the frequency of anti-emetic drug administration after surgery, when compared with control. The intensity of pain is also reduced, but not the amount of post-operative opioid needed (112956).
• Pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting. It is unclear if aromatherapy with lemon essential oil is beneficial in patients with nausea and vomiting due to pregnancy. Details: A small clinical study in pregnant patients shows that practicing aromatherapy with 2 drops of lemon essential oil placed on a cotton ball as needed modestly reduces pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting on 2 of 4 days of the study when compared with placebo (93475).
• Radiation-induced sialadenitis. Aromatherapy with lemon essential oil has only been evaluated in combination with other essential oils; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with thyroid cancer shows that receiving 10-minute aromatherapy baths with lemon and ginger essential oils prior to meals for 2 weeks before treatment with radioactive iodine therapy attenuates damage to the salivary gland when compared with distilled water baths (98129).
• Respiratory tract infections. Although there is interest in using lemon orally for respiratory tract infections such as cold and flu, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of lemon for these conditions. More evidence is needed to rate lemon for these uses.

(Read more about LEMON)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in food amounts.

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term for medicinal purposes. Apple cider vinegar has been safely used in short-term studies for up to 12 weeks (17609,17614,97310).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used topically. Topical application of apple cider vinegar has been reported to cause chemical burns in at least three patients. Mild skin irritation is common (91662,93074,101172). ...when used orally in large amounts, long-term. A case of hypokalemia, hyperreninemia, and osteoporosis has been reported for a patient who consumed apple cider vinegar 250 mL daily for 6 years (31730).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about APPLE CIDER VINEGAR)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Black pepper has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when black pepper oil is applied topically. Black pepper oil is nonirritating to the skin and is generally well tolerated (11). ...when black pepper oil is inhaled through the nose or as a vapor through the mouth, short-term. Black pepper oil as a vapor or as an olfactory stimulant has been used with apparent safety in clinical studies for up to 3 days and 30 days, respectively (29159,29160,29161,90502). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of black pepper when used orally in medicinal amounts.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (11).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in large amounts. Fatal cases of pepper aspiration have been reported in some patients (5619,5620). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of topical pepper oil when used in children.

PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (11).

PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in large amounts. Black pepper might have abortifacient effects (11,19); contraindicated. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of topical pepper when used during pregnancy.

LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (11). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of black pepper when used in medicinal amounts during breast-feeding.

(Read more about BLACK PEPPER)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts typically found in food. Capsicum has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912). ...when used topically and appropriately (7038,10650,105345). The active capsicum constituent capsaicin is an FDA-approved ingredient used in certain over-the-counter, topical preparations (272).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term in medicinal amounts. A specific sustained-release chili extract (Capsifen) has been used safely in doses of up to 200 mg daily, for up to 28 days (105196). ...when used intranasally and appropriately, short-term. Capsicum-containing nasal sprays, suspensions, and swabs seem to be safe when applied multiple times over 24 hours or when applied daily or every other day for up to 14 days. Although no serious side effects have been reported in clinical trials, intranasal application of capsicum-containing products can be very painful (14322,14324,14328,14329,14351,14352,14353,14356,14357) (14358,14359,14360,15016,105204). POSSIBLY UNSAFE when used orally, long-term or in high doses. There is concern that long-term use or use of excessive doses might be linked to hepatic or kidney damage, as well as hypertensive crisis (12404,40569,40606). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of capsicum when injected.

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used topically in children under 2 years old (272). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of capsicum when used orally in children.

PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used topically and appropriately (272).

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Capsicum 5 mg daily has been used for up to 28 days during the latter half of the second trimester and the third trimester (96457).

LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used topically and appropriately (272).

LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally. Dermatitis can sometimes occur in infants when foods heavily spiced with capsicum peppers are ingested during lactation (739). Also, observational research suggests that intake of raw capsicum peppers during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of sensitization to inhalant allergens in children by the age of 2 years (41021).

(Read more about CAPSICUM)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Inulin has Generally Recognized As Safe status (GRAS) in the US (93728).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in supplemental doses, short-term. Doses of 8-18 grams daily have been used safely for up to 24 weeks (7604,7605,7606,7607,8451,93716,93719,93726,103200,107936,107935,107938). Also, 20 grams daily has been used with apparent safety for up to 3 weeks (96836,96850). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of inulin when used long-term.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Inulin has Generally Recognized As Safe status (GRAS) in the US (93728).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in supplemental doses, short-term. Clinical studies have used doses of 3-6 grams daily for 10 days in children 3-6 years of age and 5-13 grams daily for up to 6 months in children 7-15 years of age with apparent safety (96847,110598,110602). ...when used in infant formula. A formula containing chicory fructans (Orafti Synergy1, BENEO GmbH), approximately 50% of which were inulin, has been used with apparent safety in infants for 8-12 months (93717,107937).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (93728). There is insufficient reliable information available about using inulin in medicinal amounts during pregnancy or lactation; avoid use.

(Read more about INULIN)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods. Lemon has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when inhaled in amounts used for aromatherapy, short-term. Lemon essential oil has been used with apparent safety as aromatherapy for up to 2 weeks in clinical research (93475,98128,98129). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of lemon when used topically, or when used orally or intranasally in medicinal amounts.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available. Avoid using in amounts greater than those typically found in foods.

(Read more about LEMON)

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, taking apple cider vinegar with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.  Details Apple cider vinegar might reduce fasting and postprandial blood glucose levels and decrease gastric emptying in people with diabetes (17609,17614,106285,106287). However, not all research agrees (106284). Theoretically, it might have additive effects on glucose levels when used with antidiabetes drugs.

DIGOXIN (Lanoxin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of apple cider vinegar with digoxin might increase the risk of cardiac toxicity.  Details A case of hypokalemia related to chronic use of apple cider vinegar has been reported (5911). Theoretically, overuse of apple cider vinegar could decrease potassium levels, increasing the risk of toxicity with digoxin.

DIURETIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of apple cider vinegar with diuretic drugs might increase the risk of hypokalemia.  Details A case of hypokalemia related to chronic use of apple cider vinegar has been reported (5911). There is some concern that people taking apple cider vinegar along with potassium depleting diuretics might have an increased risk for hypokalemia.

INSULIN Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concomitant use of apple cider vinegar with insulin might increase the risk of hypokalemia.  Details A case of hypokalemia related to chronic use of apple cider vinegar has been reported (5911). Theoretically, overuse of apple cider vinegar concomitantly with insulin might increase the risk of hypokalemia (5911).

(Read more about APPLE CIDER VINEGAR)

AMOXICILLIN (Amoxil, Trimox) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase the effects and side effects of amoxicillin.  Details Animal research shows that taking piperine, a constituent of black pepper, with amoxicillin increases plasma levels of amoxicillin (29269). This has not been reported in humans.

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with antiplatelet or anticoagulant drugs.  Details In vitro research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, seems to inhibit platelet aggregation (29206). This has not been reported in humans.

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase the risk of hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.  Details Animal research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, can reduce blood glucose levels (29225). Monitor blood glucose levels closely. Dose adjustments might be necessary.

ATORVASTATIN (Lipitor) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase blood levels of atorvastatin.  Details Animal research shows that taking piperine, a constituent of black pepper, 35 mg/kg can increase the maximum serum concentration of atorvastatin three-fold (104188). This has not been reported in humans.

CARBAMAZEPINE (Tegretol) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, black pepper might increase blood levels of carbamazepine, potentially increasing the effects and side effects of carbamazepine.  Details One clinical study in patients taking carbamazepine 300 mg or 500 mg twice daily shows that taking a single 20 mg dose of purified piperine, a constituent of black pepper, increases carbamazepine levels. Piperine may increase carbamazepine absorption by increasing blood flow to the GI tract, increasing the surface area of the small intestine, or inhibiting cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) in the gut wall. Absorption was significantly increased by 7-10 mcg/mL/hour. The time to eliminate carbamazepine was also increased by 4-8 hours. Although carbamazepine levels were increased, this did not appear to increase side effects (16833). In vitro research also shows that piperine can increase carbamazepine levels by 11% in a time-dependent manner (103819).

CYCLOSPORINE (Neoral, Sandimmune) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase the effects and side effects of cyclosporine.  Details In vitro research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, increases the bioavailability of cyclosporine (29282). This has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP1A1.  Details In vitro research suggests that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, inhibits CYP1A1 (29213). This has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 2B1 (CYP2B1) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2B1.  Details In vitro research suggests that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, inhibits CYP2B1 (29332). This has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP2D6.  Details In vitro research suggests that some constituents of black pepper inhibit CYP2D6 (29207,29212,38375). This has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase levels of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4.  Details In vitro research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, as well as the pepper fruit seem to inhibit CYP3A4 (14375,29212). This has not been reported in humans.

LITHIUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase blood levels of lithium due to its diuretic effects. The dose of lithium might need to be reduced.  Details Black pepper is thought to have diuretic properties (11).

NEVIRAPINE (Viramune) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Black pepper might increase blood levels of nevirapine.  Details Clinical research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, increases the plasma concentration of nevirapine. However, no adverse effects were observed in this study (29209).

P-GLYCOPROTEIN SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase levels of P-glycoprotein substrates.  Details In vitro research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, seems to inhibit P-glycoprotein (14375,29281,29283).

PENTOBARBITAL (Nembutal) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, black pepper might increase the sedative effects of pentobarbital.  Details Animal research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, increases pentobarbital-induced sleeping time (29214).

PHENYTOIN (Dilantin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Black pepper might increase blood levels of phenytoin.  Details Clinical research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, seems to increase absorption, slow elimination, and increase levels of phenytoin (537,14442). Taking a single dose of black pepper 1 gram along with phenytoin seems to double the serum concentration of phenytoin (14375). Consuming a soup with black pepper providing piperine 44 mg/200 mL of soup along with phenytoin also seems to increase phenytoin levels when compared with consuming the same soup without black pepper (14442).

PROPRANOLOL (Inderal) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Black pepper might increase blood levels of propranolol.  Details Clinical research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, seems to increase absorption and slow elimination of propranolol (538).

RIFAMPIN (Rifadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Black pepper might increase blood levels of rifampin.  Details Clinical research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, seems to increase absorption and serum levels of rifampin (14375,29284).

THEOPHYLLINE Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Black pepper might increase blood levels of theophylline.  Details Clinical research shows that piperine, a constituent of black pepper, seems to increase absorption and slow elimination of theophylline (538).

(Read more about BLACK PEPPER)

ACE INHIBITORS (ACEIs) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, using topical capsaicin may increase the risk of ACE inhibitor-induced cough.  Details There is one case report of a topically applied capsaicin cream contributing to the cough reflex in a patient using an ACEI (12414). However, it is unclear if this interaction is clinically significant.

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, capsicum may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details In vitro research shows that capsicum might increase the effects of antiplatelet drugs (12406,12407). Also, population research shows that capsicum is associated with an increased risk of self-reported bleeding in patients taking warfarin (12405,20348). However, clinical research shows that taking a single dose of capsaicin (Asian Herbex Ltd.), the active ingredient in capsicum, 400-800 mcg orally in combination with aspirin 500 mg does not decrease platelet aggregation when compared with taking aspirin 500 mg alone. Also, there was no notable effect on measures of platelet aggregation with capsaicin (92990). It is unclear whether capsaicin must be used in more than a single dose to affect platelet aggregation.

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, taking capsicum with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.  Details Preliminary clinical research shows that consuming capsicum 5 grams along with a glucose drink attenuates the rise in plasma glucose after 30 minutes by 21%, decreases the 2-hour postprandial area under the curve of plasma glucose by 11%, and increases the 2-hour postprandial area under the curve of plasma insulin by 58% in healthy individuals when compared with placebo (40453,40614). Other clinical research shows that taking capsicum 5 mg daily for 28 days significantly reduces postprandial blood glucose and insulin levels, but not fasting blood glucose and insulin levels, in patients with gestational diabetes (96457).

ASPIRIN Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking capsicum with aspirin might reduce the bioavailability of aspirin.  Details Animal research shows that acute or chronic intake of capsicum pepper reduces oral aspirin bioavailability (22617). This has not been shown in humans.

CIPROFLOXACIN (Cipro) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking capsicum with ciprofloxacin might increase levels and adverse effects of ciprofloxacin.  Details Animal research shows that concomitant use of capsaicin, the active constituent of capsicum, and ciprofloxacin increases the bioavailability of ciprofloxacin by up to 70% (22613).

THEOPHYLLINE Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking capsicum with theophylline might increase the levels and adverse effects of theophylline.  Details In animal research, oral administration of capsicum reduced excretion of theophylline (12405). However, capsicum does not seem to affect the pharmacokinetics of theophylline when administered intravenously (22616).

(Read more about CAPSICUM)

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, inulin might increase the risk of hypoglycemia with antidiabetes drugs.  Details Some clinical research shows that inulin improves glycemic control in patients with diabetes; however, it is unclear if it has hypoglycemic effects (93719,99843,103198).

(Read more about INULIN)

ITRACONAZOLE (Sporanox) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking itraconazole capsules or tablets with a beverage containing lemon might increase the levels and clinical effects of itraconazole.  Details In one case report, dissolving itraconazole tablets in a small amount of specific beverages containing lemon prior to administration increased the level of itraconazole in a lung transplant patient. In this case, the increased bioavailability was desirable and was likely due to improved tablet dissolution in the acidic beverage (110781).

(Read more about LEMON)

General ...In food amounts, apple cider vinegar is well tolerated. It seems to be well tolerated when used orally, short-term for medicinal purposes. However, in larger amounts, long-term use may be unsafe.
Topically, apple cider vinegar may be unsafe.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Hypokalemia, hyperreninemia, and osteoporosis have been reported with long-term use.
Topically: Chemical burns, skin irritation.

Dermatologic ...Topically, apple cider vinegar may cause chemical burns. There is one published report of an individual who developed a chemical burn caused by a single topical application of apple cider vinegar containing 5% acetic acid to the skin (91662). Another case of chemical burn has been reported for a 14-year-old patient who applied apple cider vinegar to the skin for 3 days to remove a nevi. Symptoms included erythema, irritation, and non-inflammatory skin erosion. Symptoms were treated by applying mupirocin 2% ointment twice a day for several weeks and using sunscreen on the erosion and surrounding skin (93074). In one clinical trial, use of 0.5% apple cider vinegar soaks commonly caused skin irritation. One patient in this study experienced a nonpruritic papular rash, while another patient experienced severe pruritis with burning and erosion (101172). In another report, a female had an apple cider vinegar tablet lodged in the throat for 30 minutes, resulting in tenderness and pain in the larynx and difficulty swallowing for 6 months following the incident. This was thought to be due to the acid content of the tablet (13183).

Renal ...There is one published report of an individual who developed hypokalemia, elevated renin levels, high positive urinary anion gap, and osteoporosis after ingesting apple cider vinegar 250 mL per day for 6 years. The osteoporosis was attributed to buffering of the acute acid load by bone, and the other effects were attributed to significant bicarbonate excretion (31730).

(Read more about APPLE CIDER VINEGAR)

General ...Orally, black pepper seems to be well tolerated when used in the amounts found in food or when taken as a medicine as a single dose. Topically and as aromatherapy, black pepper oil seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Burning aftertaste, dyspepsia, and reduced taste perception.
Inhalation: Cough.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Allergic reaction in sensitive individuals.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, black pepper can cause a burning aftertaste (5619) and dyspepsia (38061). Single and repeated application of piperine, the active constituent in black pepper, to the tongue and oral cavity can decrease taste perception (29267). By intragastric route, black pepper 1.5 grams has been reported to cause gastrointestinal microbleeds (29164). It is not clear if such an effect would occur with oral administration.

Immunologic ...In one case report, a 17-month-old male developed hives, red eyes, facial swelling, and a severe cough following consumption of a sauce containing multiple ingredients. Allergen skin tests were positive to both black pepper and cayenne, which were found in the sauce (93947).

Ocular/Otic ...Topically, ground black pepper can cause redness of the eyes and swelling of the eyelids (5619).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...When inhaled through the nose as an olfactory stimulant, black pepper oil has been reported to cause cough in one clinical trial (29162).

(Read more about BLACK PEPPER)

General ...Orally, capsicum is generally well tolerated in amounts typically found in food or when the extract is used in doses of up to 200 mg daily. Topically and intranasally, capsaicin, a constituent of capsicum, is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Belching, bloating, burning, diarrhea, dyspepsia, gas, headache, mild constipation, nausea, rhinorrhea, skin flushing, and sweating.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Cases of myocardial infarction and hypertensive crisis have been reported.

Cardiovascular ...Orally, palpitation was reported in one clinical trial (105196).
One case of myocardial infarction has been reported in a 41-year-old male without cardiovascular risk factors; the event was attributed to the use of an oral capsicum pepper pill that the patient had been taking for weight loss (40768). Another case of coronary vasospasm and acute myocardial infarction has been reported for a healthy 29-year-old male; the event was attributed to the use of a topical capsicum-containing patch that the patient had been applying to the middle of the back for 6 days (40658). Two cases of arterial hypertensive crisis have been reported for individuals who ingested a large amount of peppers and chili peppers the day before. One of the patients also had an acute myocardial infarction, and the other had high levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (40569,40606).

Dermatologic ...Orally, capsicum or its constituent capsaicin may cause urticaria and skin wheals in rare cases (96457,105203).
Topically, capsicum can cause a prickling sensation, itching, pain, burning, edema, stinging, irritation, rash, and erythema. About 1 in 10 patients who use capsaicin topically discontinue treatment because of adverse effects. These effects seem to occur more often with topical formulations containing higher concentrations of capsaicin, the active constituent of capsicum. Side effects tend to diminish with continued use (12401,15260,15261,40358,40439,40483,40547,40676,40682,40719)(40784,40847,92979,92983,92984,96453,105193,105197,105202,111514). In one case, application of a capsaicin 8% patch (Qutenza) for 60 minutes caused a second-degree burn, characterized by burning, erythema, severe pain, and blistering at the administration site. The burn was treated with topical corticosteroids, but 9 months later neuropathic pain persisted, resulting in limited mobility. It is unclear whether the mobility sequalae were caused by topical capsaicin or the patient's pre-existing neurological disorders (111514). Skin contact with fresh capsicum fruit can also cause irritation or contact dermatitis (12408).
Intranasally, capsaicin can cause nasal burning and pain in most patients. It also often causes lacrimation, sneezing, and excessive nasal secretion; however, these side effects appear to diminish with repeat applications (14323,14329,14358). In some cases, the burning sensation disappears after 5-8 applications (14351,14358). In some cases, patients are pretreated with intranasal lidocaine to decrease the pain of intranasal capsaicin treatment. However, even with lidocaine pretreatment, patients seem to experience significant pain (14324).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, capsicum can cause upper abdominal discomfort, including irritation, fullness, dyspepsia, gas, bloating, nausea, epigastric pain and burning, anal burning, diarrhea, mild constipation, and belching (12403,12410,40338,40427,40456,40503,40560,40584,40605,40665)(40718,40725,40745,40808,40828,96456,96457,105194,105196). There is a case report of a 3-year-old female who experienced a burning and swollen mouth and lips after touching the arm of a parent that had been treated with a capsaicin patch and then placing the fingers in the mouth (105199). Excessive amounts of capsaicin can lead to gastroenteritis and hepatic necrosis (12404). In a case report, a 40-year-old male with diabetes consumed white wine daily and chewed cayenne which was thought to result in black teeth stains and loss of enamel (40809). Some preliminary research links ingestion of capsaicin with stomach and gallbladder cancer; however the link may be due to contamination of capsaicin products with carcinogens (40771).
Topically, capsaicin can cause diarrhea and vomiting (105202).

Immunologic ...In a case report, a 34-year-old female had anaphylaxis involving difficulty breathing and stupor and also urticaria after consuming a red bell pepper, which is in the capsicum genus. The causal chemical was theorized to be 1,3-beta-glucanase (92978). In another case report, a 33-year-old female experienced angioedema, difficulty breathing and swallowing, and urticaria after ingesting raw green and red peppers (92982).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, capsicum can cause sweating and flushing of the head and neck, lacrimation, headache, faintness, and rhinorrhea (7005,12410,105196,105203). Topically, applying capsaicin can cause headache (96450,105202). Injection of capsaicin into the intermetatarsal space has also been associated with headache (96454).

Ocular/Otic ...Topically, capsicum can be extremely irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes. Capsicum oleoresin, an oily extract in pepper self-defense sprays, causes intense eye pain. It can also cause erythema, blepharospasm, tearing, shortness of breath, and blurred vision. In rare cases, corneal abrasions have occurred (12408,12409,40345,40348,40383,40720,40857).
Inhalation of capsicum can cause eye irritation, and allergic alveolitis (5885). In a case report, a 38-year-old female had acute anterior uveitis that developed about 12 hours after using a specific patch (Isola Capsicum N Plus) that contained capsaicin 1.5 mg per patch and methyl salicylate 132 mg per patch for neck pain. The uveitis was controlled with topical steroids and did not recur (92977).

Oncologic ...Population research suggests that moderate to high intake of capsaicin, the active constituent of capsicum, is associated with an increased risk of gastric cancer, while low intake is associated with a decreased risk. It is not clear from the study what amount of capsaicin is considered high versus low intake (92988). Additionally, some research suggests that any link may be due to contamination of capsaicin products with carcinogens (40771).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Orally, difficulty breathing was reported in a clinical trial (105196).
Topically, nasopharyngitis related to the use of a cream containing capsaicin has been reported (105202).
Inhalation of capsicum and exposure to capsicum oleoresin spray can cause cough, dyspnea, pain in the nasal passages, sneezing, rhinitis, and nasal congestion (5885,15016,40522,40546,40647). In rare cases, inhalation of the capsicum oleoresin or pepper spray has caused cyanosis, apnea, respiratory arrest and death in people. Death was caused by asphyxiation probably due to acute laryngeal edema and bronchoconstriction from inhalation of the capsicum oleoresin spray (40546,40672,40837,40879).
In a case report, a 47-year-old female who was exposed to capsaicin gas for more than 20 minutes experienced acute cough, shortness of breath, short-term chest pain, wheezing, and difficulty breathing for months afterwards (92980). In rare cases, exposure to capsicum oleoresin spray resulted in apnea, pulmonary injury, cyanosis, and even respiratory arrest (40383,40546).

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General ...Orally, inulin is well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Bloating, constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, and gastrointestinal cramps.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Anaphylaxis has occurred following consumption of foods high in inulin.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, inulin may cause flatulence, bloating, diarrhea, constipation, and gastrointestinal cramps, especially at doses over 30 grams (7604,8450,8509,93716,93721,93724,96836,96850,96851,99843)(107936,107940,107941,110602).

Immunologic ...Severe allergic reactions to inulin-containing foods have been reported. There is one report of anaphylaxis following consumption of foods with a high concentration of inulin including salsify, artichoke leaves, and margarine (7608).

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General ...Orally, lemon is well tolerated in amounts commonly found in foods. A thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted on the use of larger amounts.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Epigastralgia and heartburn with the regular consumption of fresh lemon juice.

Dermatologic ...Topically, the application of lemon oil might cause photosensitivity, due to furocoumarin derivative content. This occurs most often in fair-skinned people (11019).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, fresh lemon juice, taken as 60 mL twice daily, has been reported to cause gastrointestinal disturbances in 37% of patients in one clinical trial, compared with 8% of patients in the placebo group. Specifically, of the patients consuming lemon juice, 21% experienced heartburn and 8% experienced epigastralgia, compared to 1% and 3%, respectively, in the placebo group (107489).

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