Select Greens Unflavored by Moss Nutrition

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Alzheimer disease. It is unclear if apple juice consumption is beneficial in patients with Alzheimer disease. Details: A small clinical study in adults with moderate to severe Alzheimer disease shows that drinking 4 ounces of apple juice twice daily for one month does not improve cognitive function when compared with baseline. However, according to caregiver assessment, it seems to improve aspects of mood and behavior, such as anxiety, depression, apathy, delusion, and agitation, when compared with baseline (94422). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Cancer. It is unclear if apple consumption is beneficial for preventing cancer. Details: Some population research has found that eating one or more apples daily may be associated with a decreased risk of esophageal, colorectal, larynx, or breast cancer when compared with eating less than 1 apple daily (31688). Also, a case-control study in adults with lung cancer has found that increased apple consumption may be associated with a reduced risk of lung cancer (3470).
• Dental plaque. It is unclear if apple consumption is beneficial for reducing dental plaque. Details: A small clinical study in healthy patients shows that eating an apple is less effective for reducing plaque than brushing teeth. Eating an apple actually increases plaque when compared with baseline, although it decreases the measure of bacterial vitality (99447).
• Diabetes. It is unclear if consumption of powdered, dehydrated apple is beneficial in patients with type 2 diabetes. Details: A small clinical study in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that substituting 26-52 grams of white wheat flour in bread with powdered, dehydrated apple and consuming the bread daily for up to 4 weeks does not improve fasting blood glucose or postprandial glucose levels when compared with a low-fiber white bread control (13141).
• Diarrhea. It is unclear if apple juice consumption is beneficial in infants with severe diarrhea. Details: A clinical study in infants with severe diarrhea shows that drinking apple juice 15 mL/kg twice daily during episodes of diarrhea results in more fecal loss when compared with drinking water (31687).
• Metabolic syndrome. Although there has been interest in using apple for metabolic syndrome, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of apple for this purpose.
• Muscle strength. Oral apple extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effects when used alone is unclear. Details: Small clinical studies in resistance trained males show that taking a specific blend of ancient peat and apple extract (elevATP, VDF FutureCeuticals Inc.) 150 mg daily as a liquid with liposomes (QuSomes, BioZone Laboratories Inc.) for 12 weeks modestly increases lower body and total strength, improves lower body power output, and increases cross-sectional area of muscle when compared with placebo (94418,94419).
• Obesity. It is unclear if apple consumption is beneficial in patients with overweight or obesity. Details: A small clinical study in females with hypercholesterolemia and overweight or obesity shows that eating apples three times daily for 12 weeks is associated with weight loss of 1.2 kg, compared with weight loss of 0.9 kg in those consuming oat cookies (17997). More evidence is needed to rate apple for these uses.

(Read more about APPLE)

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Coronary heart disease (CHD). Consuming barley 3-3.6 grams daily as a source of dietary fiber appears to reduce the risk of CHD. Details: Clinical research shows that a diet containing foods high in soluble fiber, such as whole grain barley or dry milled barley, reduces the risk of heart disease (2737,4962,4963,4964,4965,4966,4967,4968). In 1993, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a health claim stating that consuming at least 3 grams of soluble fiber per day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of CHD (5792,5797,102336). However, some clinical research shows that at least 3.6 grams of soluble fiber daily is needed to reduce the risk of CHD (5788,5795).
• Hypercholesterolemia. Consuming barley 3-12 grams daily seems to reduce total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in adults with hypercholesterolemia. Details: Clinical research shows that taking barley significantly reduces total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol when used with a normal diet or added to the National Cholesterol Education Program's Step I diet (11134,11986,17129,33734,33748,33752). A meta-analysis of 11 clinical trials shows that consuming preparations containing barley 3-12 grams daily for at least 4-12 weeks reduces total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels by around 12 mg/dL and 10 mg/dL, respectively, with no change in triglyceride or high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. These changes did not appear to be dose-dependent (17129). However, a small clinical study in males with hypercholesterolemia shows that the effect of barley on cholesterol is modestly dose-dependent. Taking 0.4 grams, 3 grams, or 6 grams of soluble fiber from barley daily for 5 weeks reduces total cholesterol by 14%, 17%, and 20%, respectively, and reduces LDL cholesterol by 17%, 17%, and 24%, respectively, when compared to baseline (11986). The form of barley used may alter its effect on cholesterol levels. Some research has shown that barley highly enriched (75% by weight) with beta-glucans does not seem to significantly affect cholesterol. This lack of effect seems to be the result of processing the barley into a highly enriched beta-glucans product (10166). Food processing seems to affect beta-glucans structure or solubility and therefore decreases the cholesterol lowering effects of barley.

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Colorectal cancer. Increased consumption of barley as a source of fiber does not appear to be beneficial for primary or secondary prevention of colorectal cancer. Details: Clinical and observational research shows that consuming dietary cereal fiber, including barley fiber, does not reduce the risk of colorectal cancer or prevent colorectal cancer recurrence (160,4819,4820,4821,5104).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It is unclear if oral barley is beneficial in patients with COVID-19. Details: A small clinical study in Iranian adults hospitalized with moderate COVID-19 shows that drinking 250 mL of Persian barley water daily for 2 weeks, along with conventional treatment, decreases length of hospital stay, body temperature, and markers of inflammation when compared with conventional treatment alone. However, Persian barley water does not appear to improve oxygen saturation or symptoms of COVID-19 (111148). The validity of these findings is limited by a lack of placebo control and concerns related to the statistical methods used.
• Diabetes. Although there has been interest in using oral barley for diabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of barley for this purpose.
• Diarrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral barley for diarrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of barley for this purpose.
• Gastric cancer. It is unclear if oral barley is effective for the prevention of gastric cancer. Details: Observational research suggests that increased consumption of dietary fiber, a component of barley, is associated with 70% lower odds of gastric cancer when compared with low consumption of dietary fiber (10435).
• Gastritis. Although there has been interest in using oral barley for gastritis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of barley for this purpose.
• Hypertension. Although there has been interest in using oral barley for hypertension, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of barley for this purpose.
• Obesity. Although there has been interest in using oral barley for obesity, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of barley for this purpose.
• Ulcerative colitis. Small clinical studies suggest that oral barley might improve symptoms associated with ulcerative colitis. Details: Several small, open-label trials in patients with ulcerative colitis show that consuming food containing germinated barley 20-30 grams daily for 4-24 weeks reduces symptoms of ulcerative colitis when compared to baseline (33725,33729,33732,33777). However, the validity of these findings is limited by a lack of comparator groups. Barley has also been studied in combination with other ingredients. A small clinical study in adults with mild to moderate ulcerative colitis shows that taking a specific nutritional supplement (Profermin, Nordisk Rebalance) containing barley malt flour, oat flour, Lactobacillus plantarum, and lecithin twice daily for 8 weeks decreases symptom scores by at least 50% in an additional 26% of patients when compared with a control nutritional supplement. Disease remission occurred in 31% of patients taking this product compared with 15% of patients in the control group (92818). It is unclear if these findings are due to barley, other ingredients, or the combination. More evidence is needed to rate barley for these uses.

(Read more about BARLEY)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Athletic performance. Oral beet may improve athletic performance associated with aerobic activities. However, it is not clear who is most likely to benefit, for which type of competition it is most useful, or what dose or duration of use is most appropriate. Details: Several small clinical trials, most of which enrolled elite athletes, recreational athletes, and sedentary males, as well as meta-analyses of some of these and other studies, show that beet improves various measures of athletic performance, including ability, muscular endurance, power output, sprinting, and strength (93844,94464,94468,94469,100143,100150,100152,105761,113422). Clinical research also shows that drinking beetroot juice improves the use of oxygen during exercise testing in recreationally-trained athletes, especially with severe exercise testing (94460,94463,94467,100147,105762). Also, in obese adolescents, taking beetroot juice daily for 6 days increases the time to exhaustion from severe exercise, but does not improve moderate exercise (100145). Not all research shows that beet supplementation benefits athletic performance. Another meta-analysis of several small clinical studies, including some of the studies above, shows that taking beetroot does not improve performance in high-intensity or sprint interval training (111159). Additionally, the majority of research in elite athletes does not support the use of beetroot juice to decrease the time needed to complete a task, aid in some sort of graded exercise test, or improve the use of oxygen during exercise testing (94455,94458,94460,94461,94464,94465,94466,94469,94473,100142,100153,105763). The supposed lack of effect of beetroot juice in elite athletes might be related to the natural production of nitrates and nitrites in the body or the increased ability to use oxygen that comes from extensive training (94458,94463). Alternatively, any changes might be very small (<1%) and not identified with statistical comparisons, although even very small changes might be beneficial in competition (94464). The most commonly used doses in all studies, regardless of effect, have included an acute dose of beetroot juice 70-500 mL up to 3 hours prior to exercise (93844,94463,94464,94466,94467,94473,97726,100142,100143,105761)(105762,111159,113422) or chronic dosing of up to 500 mL daily for 3-6 days (94459,94464,94469,100145,100147,100153,111159,113422). Less commonly, beetroot juice 70-140 mL daily, betalain-rich concentrate 100 mg daily, or a beetroot-based nutritional gel 100 grams daily, have been taken for longer dosing schedules of 7-15 days (97720,100144,100148,100152,105763,113422). Benefits in elite athletes, most often related to time trials, are usually limited to studies using chronic dosing of 7-15 days, which is longer than the duration of 6 days used in the majority of studies (94473,97720,100144,100148). Brands of juice used in clinical trials have included Beet It Sport (James White Drinks Ltd.) (94455,94458,94465,100142,100143,100144,100148,105761,105763), Beet It Stamina Shot (James White Drinks Ltd.) (93844), Beet It (James White Drinks Ltd) (94457,94459,94460,94467,94469,97726,100145,100153,105762,111159), and Love Beets Beetroot Juice (Gs Fresh Ltd.) (94461,94462). Although plasma levels have not been analyzed in all studies, the majority of studies suggest that these doses are adequate to increase levels of nitrates or nitrites, which is thought to be essential for increasing athletic potential (93844,94455,94458,94459,94460,94465,94467,94469,94466,94473,97726). The evidence also suggests benefit in both normoxic and hypoxic environments (94465,100148,105763).
• Exercise-induced muscle soreness. Drinking beetroot juice 7-8 times over 48 hours after strenuous exercise may reduce exercise-induced muscle soreness, but evidence is conflicting. Details: Some clinical research shows drinking beetroot juice (Love Beets Beetroot Juice, Gs Fresh Ltd.) 125 mL or 250 mL seven times over 48 hours after strenuous box jumps improves muscle soreness when compared with placebo and sodium nitrite (96964,97722). Other small clinical studies show that drinking beetroot juice 50-250 mL as eight separate doses over 48 hours after strenuous exerciseimproves muscle soreness and reduces tissue edema when compared with placebo (94461,113424). However, drinking beetroot juice 250 mL as seven separate doses over 48 hours after running a marathon does not appear to reduce muscle soreness when compared with placebo (94462). A meta-analysis of 4 small studies, mostly in healthy or physically active males, shows that drinking beetroot juice improves the pressure pain threshold, which is a measure of muscle soreness, at 48- and 72-hours post-exercise when compared with a fruit-flavored drink. However, beetroot juice does not improve subjective muscle soreness scores (111160). The validity of the findings from this meta-analysis is limited by the heterogeneity of the beetroot juice regimens among the included studies. Further, these results should not be generalized to elite athletes.

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Drinking beetroot juice for up to 14 days may not improve exercise capacity in patients with COPD. Details: A meta-analysis of eight small clinical trials in patients with COPD shows that taking nitrate-rich beetroot juice does not improve most measures of exercise capacity, including the 6-minute walk test, cycling ergometry endurance time, and maximum rate of oxygen consumption (VO2 max), when compared with placebo. Additionally, beetroot juice did not reduce blood pressure or heart rate. However, the analysis did show a significant improvement in scores on the Borg Rating of Perceived Exhaustion scale with beetroot juice over placebo. Nitrate-rich beetroot juice doses ranged from 70-140 mL daily for up to 14 days (104200).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Cognitive function. It is unclear if drinking beetroot juice is beneficial for cognitive function. Details: A small clinical study in adults with overweight or obesity on a calorie-restricted diet shows that drinking 70 mL of concentrated beetroot juice daily for 14 days improves the time to complete part B of the trail making test, which is a test of cognitive function, but not part A, when compared with controls (111158). However, the duration and size of this study limits its validity. Further, it is unclear whether any improvement is clinically significant. The effect of acute beet administration on cognitive function has also been studied. A very small clinical study in healthy adults shows that taking beet extract (RedNite, Enovate Biolife) chewable tablets 3 grams 90 minutes prior to neuropsychological testing improves immediate and delayed memory capacity, frontal lobe function, and lexical flexibility but does not improve working memory, information processing speed, or subjective reports of memory performance when compared with placebo (113427).
• Coronary heart disease (CHD). It is unclear if oral beetroot extract is beneficial in patients with CHD. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with CHD shows that taking red beetroot extract 500 mg, containing around 25 mg betalains, twice daily for 2 weeks reduces total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 15 mg/dL and reduces triglycerides by 8 mg/dL when compared to baseline. Slight improvements in blood pressure and blood glucose were also reported, but these changes were not clinically significant (103883). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Also, it is unclear whether beetroot can reduce the risk of cardiovascular events in patients with CHD.
• Dyslipidemia. It is unclear if oral beetroot is beneficial in patients with dyslipidemia. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical studies in healthy individuals or patients with dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease, or overweight or obesity, shows that consuming beetroot juice or leaves does not improve levels of triglycerides or total, low-density lipoprotein, or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol when compared with controls (111163). However, the validity of the findings from this meta-analysis is limited by the heterogeneity of the enrolled patients and beetroot regimens.
• Exercise-induced muscle damage. It is unclear if oral beetroot juice improves recovery from muscle damage after exercise. Details: A meta-analysis of 4 small clinical studies in healthy or physically active individuals, most of which enrolled males only, shows that drinking beetroot juice improves measures of muscle recovery at 72 hours post-exercise when compared with a fruit-flavored drink. However, beetroot juice does not consistently improve recovery at earlier time points post-exercise, nor does it reduce levels of creatine kinase or markers of inflammation (i.e., interleukin-6, interleukin-8, c-reactive protein, or tumor necrosis factor-alpha) (111160). However, the validity of the findings from this meta-analysis is limited by the heterogeneity of the beetroot juice regimens among the included studies, which usually varied from 210-250 mg of nitrate in 7-11 servings over 3-7 days. Further, these results should not be generalized to elite athletes. Another very small clinical study in semi-professional female athletes shows that ingesting beetroot juice 50 mL 8 times over 48 hours after exercise-induced muscle damage enhances the recovery of some functional parameters such as muscle endurance but not others such as flexibility and vertical jump performance when compared with placebo (113424).
• Hypertension. Oral beet may slightly reduce blood pressure in healthy individuals, but it is unclear if it is beneficial in patients with hypertension. Details: Meta-analyses of small studies show the potential for a minor reduction in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) in healthy adults taking beetroot juice (94470,97718,97728). The average reduction in SBP and DBP with beetroot juice consumption is about 4 mmHg and 1 mmHg, respectively, which is greater than the effect seen with consuming blackcurrant juice or nitrate-depleted beetroot juice. The most benefit is seen when beetroot juice is taken for at least 2 weeks or at doses of 500 mL daily (97728). The effect of acute beet supplementation on blood pressure is conflicting. A small clinical study in healthy adults shows that drinking beet juice (Beet It, James White Company) 140 mL two hours prior to cardiovascular measurements reduces resting SBP by about 4 mmHg but does not improve resting or post-exercise DBP, central blood pressure, or arterial stiffness nor does it improve post-exercise SBP when compared with placebo. Subgroup analysis suggests that the reductions in resting SBP were only observed in males, not females (113423). Another small clinical study shows that consuming beet 100 grams baked into bread modestly decreases DBP over a 6-hour period when compared with white bread (97725). It is possible that genetics might play a role in the magnitude of effect seen with beetroot consumption. Adults with a specific gene polymorphism, eNOS Glu298Asp, experienced a greater reduction in DBP after consuming beet-containing bread (97724). Despite positive findings in studies of healthy individuals, research on the use of beetroot juice in patients with hypertension is unclear. A small clinical study in adults with hypertension who were taking antihypertensive medications shows that drinking nitrate-rich beetroot juice (Beet it; James White Drinks Ltd.) 70 mL twice daily for one week does not lower blood pressure when compared with nitrate-depleted beetroot juice (94457). Also, in patients with mild to moderate hypertension, clinical research shows that taking a combination of beetroot powder (Sensient) 300 mg, olive leaf extract 1000 mg, and green coffee bean extract 200 mg daily for 6 weeks does not lower blood pressure when compared with placebo (97723). However, some evidence suggests that at least part of the blood pressure lowering effects of beet might be independent of nitrate (97728). Furthermore, some research suggests that identifying effects on blood pressure might be dependent on the method of measurement, including clinic resting measurements, 24-hour monitoring, or morning/evening home resting measurements (97729).
• Hypertriglyceridemia. It is unclear if oral beet is beneficial in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Details: A small clinical study in overweight or obese individuals with dyslipidemia shows that taking freeze-dried beet leaf 2.8 grams daily for 4 weeks in addition to nutritional guidance does not lower triglyceride levels when compared with nutritional guidance alone (100146). Beet has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients. A small clinical trial in patients at risk for heart disease shows that a specific combination of beet and hawthorn berry (Neo40-Daily, Neogenis Labs), taken twice daily for 30 days, can modestly reduce blood triglyceride levels when compared to baseline (18222). It is unclear if these findings are due to beet, hawthorn berry, or the combination.
• Liver disease. Although there has been interest in using oral beet for liver disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of beet for this purpose.
• Muscle strength. It is unclear if oral beetroot juice is beneficial for muscle strength. Details: A meta-analysis of 18 clinical studies in healthy males shows that taking beetroot juice or beetroot gel 2-3 hours before exercise improves muscular strength when compared with placebo. Subgroup analysis suggests that beetroot-based supplements improve muscular strength in a fatigued but not resting state (113422). A small clinical study in adults with overweight or obesity on a calorie-restricted diet shows that drinking 70 mL of concentrated beetroot juice daily for 14 days improves handgrip strength by approximately 18% compared with 4% in controls (111158). However, it is unclear whether any improvement is clinically significant.
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral beet leaf or beetroot juice is beneficial for weight loss. Details: A small clinical study in patients with overweight or obesity and dyslipidemia shows that taking freeze-dried beet leaf 2.8 grams daily for 4 weeks in addition to nutritional guidance does not reduce body weight or body mass index (BMI) when compared with nutritional guidance alone (100146). Similarly, a small clinical study in adults with overweight or obesity on a calorie-restricted diet shows that drinking 70 mL of concentrated beetroot juice daily for 14 days does not improve weight loss when compared with controls (111158). However, the size and duration of this study may have been inadequate to detect differences between groups.
• Pregnancy-induced hypertension. It is unclear if oral beetroot juice is beneficial in patients with pregnancy-induced hypertension. Details: A small clinical trial in pregnant patients with hypertension who are at approximately 22-35 weeks gestation shows that taking beetroot juice (James White Drinks Ltd) 70 mL daily for 8 days does not reduce blood pressure when compared with a nitrate-depleted beetroot juice (100151). However, the study was small and designed to investigate the feasibility of using beetroot juice in this population.
• Pulmonary hypertension. It is unclear if oral beetroot juice is beneficial in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Details: A small clinical study shows that taking beetroot juice (Beet-It Sport; James White Drinks Ltd) 70 mL twice daily for 7 days does not improve right ventricular systolic function when compared with nitrate-depleted beetroot juice in patients with pulmonary hypertension (100149). However, this study was small and not adequately powered to detect differences between groups.
• Raynaud syndrome. It is unclear if oral beetroot juice is beneficial in patients with Raynaud syndrome. Details: A small clinical study in patients with Raynaud syndrome undergoing cold sensitivity tests shows that drinking beetroot juice (Beet-It, James White Drinks Ltd) 70 mL daily for 13 days, followed by 140 mL prior to testing, does not reduce pain in the hands or feet, but might improve thermal comfort in the feet, when compared to baseline (103884). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group. More evidence is needed to rate beet for these uses.

(Read more about BEET)

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Hypertension. Most clinical research suggests that consuming freeze-dried blueberries or blueberry powder does not lower blood pressure in patients with hypertension, prehypertension, or other risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Details: Although conflicting results exist (92386,99139), a meta-analysis of 6 clinical trials including approximately 200 patients with hypertension, prehypertension, or other risk factors for cardiovascular disease shows that consuming freeze dried blueberries or blueberry powder 22-50 grams daily for 6-8 weeks does not significantly lower systolic or diastolic blood pressure when compared with placebo (92390).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Anxiety. It is unclear if oral blueberry can improve symptoms of anxiety. Details: A small clinical study in healthy adults shows that drinking 30 mL of blueberry juice diluted in 100 mL of water twice daily for 20 days reduces measures of state and trait anxiety when compared with placebo (111235).
• Age-related cognitive decline. Small clinical studies suggest that oral blueberry products may slightly improve some measures of cognitive function in older adults with age-related cognitive decline. Details: Most clinical evidence shows that blueberry can improve some aspects of cognitive decline, but it has minimal effect on other measures. One small clinical trial in older patients with self-reported cognitive decline shows that taking freeze-dried blueberry powder 12.5 grams twice daily for 6 months modestly improves cognitive performance in daily activities but most measures of cognitive function did not improve (97181). Another small clinical study in patients 60 years of age and older with self-reported memory complaints shows that taking a wild blueberry extract (ThinkBlue, Naturex Inc) 100 mg daily with cysteine and glutathione modestly improves episodic memory at 3 months, but not at 6 months, when compared with placebo. However, taking this same blueberry extract or a wild blueberry powder 450 mg or 900 mg daily with cysteine and glutathione does not improve sequence recall, working memory, or executive function (99139). Other small clinical studies show a benefit in some, but not all measures of executive functioning and memory (96467,111234)
• Aging. It is unclear if consuming blueberry can improve functional mobility in adults 60 years of age and older. Details: One small clinical study in adults over 60 years of age shows that consuming 2 cups of frozen blueberries daily for 6 weeks improves some measures of functional mobility, such as foot placement and balance, when compared with drinking carrot juice. However, blueberry does not seem to improve hand grip strength, executive function, or other measurements of gait speed when compared with carrot juice (92387). Another small clinical study in this same age group shows that consuming 12 grams of powdered blueberry mixed with liquid twice daily for 3 months does not improve measures of functional mobility when compared with placebo (96467).
• Athletic performance. Small clinical studies suggest that oral freeze-dried blueberry powder may not reduce exertion or improve long-distance running performance in trained runners. Details: Two small clinical studies in adults with running experience show that taking freeze-dried blueberry powder 24 grams three times daily for four days does not improve perceived exertion, the time to run 8 km, or distance run over 30 minutes when compared with placebo. However, blueberry does appear to modestly attenuate increases in blood lactate after running (101963,107282).
• Cancer. Although there has been interest in using oral blueberry for preventing cancer, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blueberry for this purpose.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Small clinical studies suggest that oral blueberry supplementation might modestly improve body weight and triglyceride levels, but not body mass index (BMI), glycemic control, or cholesterol levels, in patients at risk for CVD. Details: A meta-analysis of 11 small and low-quality clinical studies involving a total of 497 adults with various risk factors for CVD shows that taking blueberry for 4-16 weeks modestly reduces weight and triglyceride levels, but does not improve other risk factors for CVD, including BMI, glycemic indices, cholesterol levels, and certain inflammatory mediators, when compared with placebo or other control. In a sub-group analysis, weight reduction was slightly more favorable in studies of longer than 6 weeks' duration (mean reduction of 0.91 kg) and in studies using blueberry powder or freeze-dried blueberry (mean reduction of 0.86 kg) (105702). The validity of these findings is limited by the heterogeneity and small size of the included studies. Additionally, it is unclear if blueberry is beneficial for reducing the risk for CVD or CVD-related complications.
• Cataracts. Although there has been interest in using oral blueberry for preventing cataracts, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blueberry for this purpose.
• Cognitive function. Small clinical studies suggest that oral blueberry products may improve some, but not most, measures of cognitive function in children and adults. Details: Several small clinical studies in children 7-10 years of age show that drinking a blueberry drink containing 30 grams of freeze-dried blueberries or 200 grams of fresh blueberries as a single dose does not improve most measures of cognitive function when compared with placebo. These trials showed small improvements in some measures of cognitive function, including auditory-verbal learning, word recognition, and delayed memory, but these specific findings were not consistent across all studies (92394,96465,101961). Additionally, a small clinical trial in healthy young adults shows that taking a combination of blueberry and grape extracts (Memophenol, Activ'Inside) 600 mg increases the ability to complete serial three subtraction by 2.5-fold when compared with placebo. However, there were no other improvements in working memory or attention during a sustained cognitive effort (101960).
• Depression. It is unclear if oral blueberry extract or freeze-dried powder is beneficial in patients with depression. Details: One small clinical study in adults with cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT)-associated depression and depression-associated gastrointestinal infection shows that taking blueberry extract 10 mg daily for 3 months reduces symptoms of depression by 49% and gastrointestinal infection rates by 84% when compared to baseline; when compared with placebo, these changes are significant (96464). Another small clinical study in healthy adults shows that drinking 30 mL of blueberry juice diluted in 100 mL of water twice daily for 20 days reduces symptoms of depression when compared with placebo (111235). A small clinical study in healthy adolescents 11-17 years of age without diagnosed mental health issues at baseline shows that drinking freeze-dried wild blueberry powder 13 grams daily for 4 weeks improves self-reported depressive symptoms, but not anxiety symptoms or transient affect, when compared with placebo. The adolescents enrolled in this study were found to have suboptimal fruit and vegetable intake at baseline (105703).
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral freeze-dried blueberry powder is beneficial in patients with diabetes. Details: A small clinical study in males 45-75 years of age with type 2 diabetes shows that drinking 11 grams of freeze-dried highbush blueberry powder mixed with water twice daily with a meal for 8 weeks reduces glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) values and triglyceride levels, but not body weight, fasting plasma glucose, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, or blood pressure, when compared with placebo. This study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups (105701). Blueberry has also been evaluated for the prevention of gestational diabetes. A small clinical study in patients with a history of gestational diabetes shows that consuming 280 grams of blueberries plus 12 grams of soluble fiber daily for 18 weeks, starting at less than 20 weeks' gestation, along with standard care reduces maternal weight gain and blood glucose levels after glucose challenge testing when compared with standard care alone. However, neither gestational diabetes incidence nor infant birth weight was lower with blueberry supplementation when compared with standard care alone (107281).
• Hyperlipidemia. It is unclear if oral blueberry is beneficial in patients with hyperlipidemia. Details: One small clinical study in healthy adults shows that drinking blueberry juice 30 mL twice daily for 20 days reduces total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol when compared with placebo (111235). Additionally, drinking a combination of blueberry, apple, chokeberry, and cranberry juice 300 mL daily for 6 weeks appears to decrease total cholesterol and increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol when compared to baseline in females with overweight or obesity and at least one risk factor for cardiovascular disease (111233). However, the validity of the study is limited by its small size, short duration, and lack of a comparator group. It is unclear if these effects are due to blueberry, other ingredients, or the combination. In contrast, other small clinical studies suggest that blueberry does not improve lipid levels (105701,111234). A small clinical study in males 45-75 years old shows that blueberry has no effect on total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol, but may reduce triglycerides, when compared with placebo. However, in a sub-group of patients also taking lipid-lowering medications, blueberry reduced levels of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol when compared with placebo (105701). Another small clinical study in middle-aged adults with overweight shows that taking oral blueberry powder daily for 12 weeks does not impact total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, or triglycerides when compared with placebo (111234). However, these studies may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups.
• Hypertriglyceridemia. It is unclear if oral blueberry leaf extract is beneficial in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with mild to moderate hypertriglyceridemia shows that taking a single dose of a blueberry leaf extract 300 mg along with a high-fat meal reduces postprandial triglyceride levels, but not postprandial glucose or insulin levels, when compared with placebo (101959).
• Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). It is unclear if oral blueberry juice is beneficial in children with JIA. Details: A small clinical study in children with JIA shows that adding 50 mL of blueberry juice daily to treatment with etanercept 50 mg twice weekly for 6 months increases the percentage of patients who achieve a 20% improvement in symptoms based on American College of Rheumatology criteria when compared with taking etanercept along with placebo juice. About 75% of patients in the blueberry juice group experienced a 20% improvement in symptoms, compared with 51% of patients in the placebo group, suggesting that for every four patients that drink blueberry juice along with etanercept therapy, one additional patient will experience a 20% or greater improvement in symptoms. Drinking blueberry juice also appears to reduce side effects caused by etanercept, including weight gain, infection, diarrhea, and anorexia (92388).
• Metabolic syndrome. Small clinical studies in patients with metabolic syndrome, along with an analysis of studies in patients at risk for metabolic syndrome, suggest that oral freeze-dried blueberries do not improve body weight or glycemic control, but may slightly lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Details: A small clinical study in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that taking freeze-dried blueberry powder 26 grams daily for 6 months improves flow-mediated dilation by 45% when compared with placebo, but does not affect low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, insulin resistance, or blood pressure. In a sub-group of patients not taking statins, blueberry increased levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol by 3 mg/dL; however, a lower dose of 13 grams daily had no beneficial effects (101958). Another small clinical trial in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that consuming freeze-dried blueberries 25 grams twice daily for 8 weeks reduces systolic blood pressure by around 4% and diastolic blood pressure by around 3% when compared with placebo, but does not affect body weight, lipid levels, or glycemic control (107278). Additionally, a small clinical trial in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that drinking a smoothie containing freeze-dried blueberry powder 22.5 grams twice daily for 6 weeks does not improve blood pressure, body weight, glycemic control, or lipid levels when compared with placebo, although it does improve measures of endothelial function (107279). A meta-analysis evaluating the studies above, along with 9 small clinical trials in patients at risk for metabolic syndrome, shows that blueberry supplementation does not improve body weight, glycemic control, triglyceride levels, or systolic blood pressure. However, it reduces total cholesterol by around 8 mg/dL, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by around 9 mg/dL, and diastolic blood pressure by around 2 mmHg when compared with placebo (107280).
• Muscle strength. Oral blueberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial in young, healthy males shows that taking blueberry extract 200 mg plus phosphocreatine disodium salts 5 grams daily for 28 days improves peak torque and average power during leg extension exercises when compared to baseline, while individuals taking placebo saw no improvements in these measures (107284). It is unclear if these findings are due to blueberry, phosphocreatine, or the combination.
• Night vision. Although there has been interest in using oral blueberry for improving night vision, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blueberry for this purpose.
• Obesity. Oral blueberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in females with overweight or obesity and at least one risk factor for cardiovascular disease shows that drinking a combination of blueberry, apple, chokeberry, and cranberry juice 300 mL daily for 6 weeks does not reduce body weight, body mass index (BMI), or blood pressure but might improve total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol when compared to baseline (111233). However, the validity of these findings is limited by the small study size, short duration, and lack of a comparator group. It is unclear if these effects are due to blueberry, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Although there has been interest in using oral blueberry for preventing UTIs, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blueberry for this purpose. More evidence is needed to rate blueberry for these uses.

(Read more about BLUEBERRY)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Hypertension. Oral blue-green algae seem to modestly reduce blood pressure in patients with hypertension. Details: Some small clinical studies show that blue-green algae can decrease blood pressure in patients with hypertension (97206,99654). A meta-analysis of five small clinical trials in patients with hypertension, type 2 diabetes, or chronic pain shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae 1-8 grams daily for up to 12 weeks reduces systolic blood pressure (SBP) by 5 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) by 7 mmHg when compared with placebo. The effect size was larger in patients with hypertension and in those treated for at least 12 weeks (109964). Another small clinical study shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (A. maxima) 4.5 grams daily for 6 weeks decreases blood pressure in adults with hypertension, with the number of subjects fulfilling the criteria for hypertension decreasing from 45% to 14% when compared to baseline (18297). A more recent clinical study in patients with hypertension shows that consuming a salad dressing containing 2 grams spirulina blue-green algae daily for 8 weeks reduces SBP by around 6 mmHg and DBP by around 4 mmHg when compared to baseline. While overall reduction in blood pressure with spirulina dressing was larger when compared with patients consuming a control dressing, the study groups were heterogenous at baseline, limiting the validity of any statistical comparisons between groups (109965).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial in allergic rhinitis. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis) 2 grams daily for 6 months, improves self-rated scores for sneezing, nasal discharge, nasal congestion, and itching when compared with placebo in adults with allergic rhinitis (18300).
• Antiretroviral-induced insulin resistance. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial for insulin resistance due to antiretrovirals. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis) 19 grams daily for 2 months increases insulin sensitivity by about 225% when compared to baseline in patients with antiretroviral-induced insulin resistance (75944). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Anxiety. Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for anxiety, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Arsenic poisoning. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial for chronic arsenic toxicity. Details: Preliminary clinical research in people living in areas of Bangladesh with high arsenic levels in drinking water shows that taking a combination of an alcoholic extract of spirulina blue-green algae 250 mg and zinc 2 mg orally twice daily for 16 weeks, in addition to use of filtered drinking water, increases urinary arsenic excretion, reduces hair arsenic levels, and improves skin manifestations of chronic arsenic toxicity when compared with placebo plus filtered water (18301).
• Athletic performance. Most research suggests that oral blue-green algae are not beneficial for improving athletic performance; however, the available studies are small. Details: AAlthough some research disagrees, most small or preliminary clinical trials show that taking spirulina blue-green algae does not improve athletic performance in trained or untrained adults. One study shows that, when compared with placebo, taking spirulina blue-green algae (Hawaiian Spirulina, Cyanotech Corporation) 3 grams daily for up to 8 weeks has no effect on exercise output during a 30-minute elliptical trainer workout in active males (97203). In elite rugby players, taking spirulina blue-green algae (Algae Green Value) 5.7 grams daily for 7 weeks does not improve jump or sprint performance or body composition when compared to placebo (104567). In healthy untrained males, a small study shows that taking spirulina blue green algae 6 grams daily for 7 days does not increase the time to fatigue related to arm cycling following a 30-minute submaximal exercise bout (104566). In male recreational runners, spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis) 2 grams three times daily for 4 weeks was not associated with any change in exercise intensity during a 2-hour treadmill jogging period. However, sprinting time to exhaustion following the 2-hour jog increased from 2.05 minutes to 2.7 minutes (18306). Also, a study of athletes and non-athletes shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (Parry Nutraceuticals) 2 grams daily for 8 weeks has a small effect on isometric muscle strength, but not muscle endurance, when compared with placebo (104568).
• Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Oral blue-green algae have only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking 3 mL of a specific combination of spirulina blue-green algae, peony, ashwagandha, gotu kola, bacopa, and lemon balm (Nurture and Clarity, Tree of Healing-LD) diluted in 50-60 mL of water three times daily for 4 months improves ADHD scores when compared with placebo in previously untreated children aged 6-12 years (19272). It is unclear if this effect is due to blue-green algae, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Beta-thalassemia. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial in beta-thalassemia. Details: In children with beta-thalassemia, preliminary clinical research shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (GNC Natural Brand Spirulina, General Nutrition Corporation) 250 mg/kg daily, up to a maximum dose of 4 grams daily, for 3 months reduces the percentage of children requiring blood transfusion during an interval of less than 2 weeks from 66% to 40%. There were also improvements in red blood cell count and levels of hemoglobin, ferritin, and liver function enzymes (104569). However, the validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Blepharospasm. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial when used in conjunction with botulinum toxin injections. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking a specific product containing the blue-green algae species Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (Super Blue-Green Algae, Cell Tech) 1500 mg per day orally for 6 months in addition to botulinum toxin-A injections does not reduce eyelid spasms when compared with botulinum toxin-A alone in people with essential blepharospasm or Meige syndrome (14842).
• Cancer. Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for cancer, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for CVD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Cognitive Impairment. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are effective for improving cognitive impairment. Details: A small clinical study in patients aged 60 or older with mild cognitive impairment shows that taking blue-green algae extract 1 gram 3 times daily for 12 weeks slightly improves some components of cognitive function testing related to visual learning, memory, and vocabulary when compared with placebo (112001). However, the validity of these findings is limited by lack of adjustment for multiple comparisons, which may explain the discrepant results with the other components of the cognitive function tests.
• Depression. Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for depression, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial in diabetes. Details: A meta-analysis of seven small clinical studies in patients with type 2 diabetes shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae 0.8-14 grams daily for 6-12 weeks reduces fasting blood glucose and improves total cholesterol, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, but does not affect low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, when compared with placebo. There was no reduction in glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c); however, all but two of the studies lasted less than 12 weeks, limiting the validity of the findings related to HbA1c (109970).
• Dyslipidemia. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial in dyslipidemia. Details: Several clinical studies in patients with normal or elevated cholesterol levels show that doses of spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis, A. maxima, A. fusiformis) ranging from 1-10 grams daily for 1-6 months may reduce total cholesterol by 8% to 27%, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 10% to 65%, and triglycerides by 0% to 23%; and increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol by 0% to 66% (18297,18298,18299,91705,91708,91710,91717,102689). However, the validity of these studies is limited by methodological weaknesses and heterogeneous population characteristics. A meta-analysis of 23 small studies, several of which were in patients with type 2 diabetes or obesity, shows that taking blue-green algae 0.8-10 grams for 4 to 24 weeks modestly improves levels of LDL, HDL, triglycerides, and total cholesterol when compared with placebo or no treatment (112004). The interpretation of these findings is limited by the high heterogeneity of the included studies which enrolled patients of varying health status and employed various study designs.
• Dyspepsia. Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for dyspepsia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Exercise-induced muscle soreness. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are effective for the prevention of exercise-induced muscle soreness. Details: A small clinical study in recreationally trained males shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae 2 grams three times daily does not reduce delayed onset muscle soreness after eccentric exercise when compared with placebo (109967).
• Hepatitis C. Evidence for the use of oral blue-green algae in hepatitis C is conflicting. Details: One clinical study in adults with chronic hepatitis C who are unresponsive to interferon treatment shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis) 500 mg orally three times daily for 6 months is associated with greater improvements in alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels than taking silymarin 140 mg three times daily. Complete virological response rates were 13% with blue-green algae and 3% with silymarin, although this difference was not statistically significant (63247). However, in another study in people with chronic hepatitis B or C, liver function enzyme levels worsened after one month of treatment with oral spirulina blue-green algae (18304).
• HIV/AIDS. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial for people with HIV/AIDS who do not have access to antiretrovirals. Details: One clinical study in adults with untreated HIV shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis) powder 5-10 grams daily for 3-6 months does not affect CD4 counts, viral load, or weight gain in patients with HIV (75927,91707). However, in one study, the incidence of opportunistic infections, respiratory disease, gastrointestinal symptoms, and fatigue was 43% for patients taking spirulina blue-green algae, compared to 70% for patients taking placebo (91707).
• Iron deficiency anemia. Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for iron deficiency anemia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Lichen planus. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial in patients with oral lichen planus. Details: A small clinical study in patients with oral lichen planus shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae 500 mg twice daily for 8 weeks along with application of triamcinolone acetonide 0.1% oral paste three times daily for 1 week reduces pain and lesion size when compared with only triamcinolone acetonide three times daily for 8 weeks (109963).
• Malnutrition. Evidence for the use of oral blue-green algae in malnutrition is conflicting. Details: Some clinical research in severely undernourished children shows that adding spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis) 5 grams orally twice daily for 8 weeks to a traditional diet results in an average daily weight gain of 25 grams, compared with only 15 grams for those given the traditional diet alone. Similarly, giving blue-green algae 10 grams twice daily for 8 weeks in addition to a misola diet (millet, soy, peanut kernel, sugar, and salt) results in an average daily weight gain of 34 grams, compared with only 20 grams for children given the misola diet alone (18308). However, a small clinical study in malnourished children aged 3 months to 3 years shows that giving spirulina blue-green algae 5 grams daily for 3 months in addition to a traditional diet fails to increase weight gain more than the traditional diet alone (18309). Similarly, a moderate-size crossover study in preschool-aged children in Cambodia shows that taking blue-green algae 2 grams 5 times a week during the first hour of school for 8 weeks does not improve weight gain or height but may reduce the proportion of children with anemia when compared with placebo (112002). The interpretation of these findings is limited by the high rate of patients lost to follow-up and the lack of statistical adjustment for confounding factors, such as parasitism and home diet.
• Memory. Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for memory, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Menopausal symptoms. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial for improving symptoms of menopause. Details: A preliminary clinical study shows that taking a product containing the blue-green algae species Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (Klamin, Nutrigea) 1.6 grams daily for 8 weeks reduces anxiety and depression when compared with placebo in menopausal adults aged 50-60 years. The treatment has no effect on vasomotor symptoms or hormone levels (18310).
• Mental alertness. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial for reducing mental fatigue. Details: A preliminary clinical study shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (Hawaiian Spirulina, Cyanotech Corporation) 3 grams daily for up to 8 weeks improves performance on a mathematical based mental fatigue test in healthy men when compared with placebo. Subjective improvement in mental alertness over placebo was also reported (97203).
• Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial in patients with metabolic syndrome. Details: A small clinical study in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (Spirulysat, AlgoSource), providing phycocyanin 20 mg, daily for 12 weeks improves triglyceride levels, but does not reduce body mass index, waist circumference, blood pressure, glycemic indices, or other lipid levels, when compared with placebo (109971).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for NAFLD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Obesity. Evidence for the use of blue-green algae in obesity is conflicting. Details: Small, low-quality clinical trials have shown mixed results in people with obesity (18295,91717,97205,99655,99703,102688). When results are analyzed together, there is evidence of a very small benefit for both body weight and plasma lipid levels. Two meta-analyses show that taking spirulina blue-green algae may increase weight loss by up to 1.85 kg when compared with placebo (102690,104565). A greater effect is seen in patients with obesity when compared with overweight patients. In addition, there is a small effect on fat loss (102690). However, there is evidence from two studies lasting longer than 12 weeks that taking blue-green algae may slightly increase BMI (104565). A meta-analysis of small clinical trials also shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae reduces fasting blood sugar and total cholesterol levels by a small amount when compared with placebo, but has no effect on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol or triglyceride levels, in patients with obesity (102689). When combined with an exercise program, taking spirulina blue-green algae increases weight loss by 1.4 kg and improves exercise tolerance and total, LDL, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels when compared with exercise alone (99655,102688). Doses have included a specific product containing the spirulina blue-green algae species A. fusiformis (Multinal, New Ambadi Estate Pvt. Ltd.) 1 gram twice daily or four times daily for 3 months (91717) or spirulina blue-green algae 2 grams daily for 3 months, or 4.5 grams daily for 6 weeks, alone or in combination with exercise (97205,99655,102688).
• Oral leukoplakia. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial for oral leukoplakia in tobacco chewers. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae (A. fusiformis) orally 1 gram daily for 12 months produces regression of precancerous oral leukoplakia lesions in 45% of tobacco chewers, compared to only 7% of those receiving placebo. Regression rates appear to be highest in those with homogeneous lesions and lowest in those with ulcerated or nodular lesions (15782).
• Periodontitis. It is unclear if injecting blue-green algae into periodontal pockets is beneficial in periodontitis. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that injecting a 4% w/v gel prepared from spirulina blue-green algae into periodontal pockets of adults with chronic periodontitis, after scaling and root planing, is associated with a decrease in probing pocket depth of 1.57 mm after 120 days, compared with only 0.84 mm in patients receiving scaling and root planing alone (91709).
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for PMS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Stress. Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for stress, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition.
• Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral blue-green algae are beneficial in patients with ulcerative colitis. Details: A small clinical study in patients with ulcerative colitis shows that taking spirulina blue-green algae 500 mg twice daily for 8 weeks improves quality of life scores and reduces stress and sleep disturbances when compared with placebo. However, there was no effect on most measures of sleep quality, mood, and fatigue (109969).
• Wound healing. Although there has been interest in using oral blue-green algae for wound healing, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of blue-green algae for this condition. More evidence is needed to rate blue-green algae for these uses.

(Read more about BLUE-GREEN ALGAE)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Colorectal cancer. Consumption of cruciferous vegetables, including broccoli, seems to reduce the risk of developing colorectal cancer. Details: Epidemiological research suggests that the highest intakes of cruciferous vegetables, including broccoli, are associated with an 18% to 20% reduced risk of developing colorectal neoplasms when compared with the lowest intakes (14148,96187,96189).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Bladder cancer. It is unclear if consumption of broccoli reduces the risk of developing bladder cancer. Details: Epidemiological research suggests that eating about 1.75 cups daily of cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli or cabbage, is associated with a 30% reduced risk of developing bladder cancer (14864).
• Breast cancer. It is unclear if consumption of broccoli reduces the risk of developing breast cancer. Details: Epidemiological research suggests that consumption of broccoli is associated with a modestly reduced risk of developing breast cancer in premenopausal adults. However, broccoli consumption does not seem to be associated with breast cancer risk in postmenopausal adults (14146).
• Fibromyalgia. Broccoli has only been evaluated in combination with ascorbigen; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in females with fibromyalgia shows that taking one capsule containing ascorbigen 100 mg and broccoli powder 400 mg once daily for one month improves pain by 18% and reduces physical impairment by 20% when compared to baseline (19605). It is unclear if this effect is due to broccoli, ascorbigen, or the combination. The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Gastric cancer. It is unclear if consumption of broccoli reduces the risk of developing gastric cancer. Details: A small epidemiological study suggests that higher consumption of broccoli is associated with a reduced risk of developing gastric cancer when compared with lower consumption (14148).
• Helicobacter pylori. It is unclear if consumption of broccoli is beneficial for treating Helicobacter pylori infection. Details: A moderate-sized clinical study in adults with Helicobacter pylori infection shows that taking broccoli seed extract 200 mg, containing 16% glucosinolates, daily before bedtime for 2 months does not improve Helicobacter pylori eradication rate when compared with placebo (112445,112446).
• Hypercholesterolemia. Broccoli has only been evaluated in combination with cabbage; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia shows that consuming 160 grams of a beverage containing broccoli, cabbage, and fruit twice daily for 12 weeks reduces levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 8.5% when compared to baseline. It is unclear if the improvement from baseline differed when compared with those consuming a similar beverage without broccoli and cabbage (19607). It is unclear if this effect is due to broccoli, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Hypertension. It is unclear if consumption of broccoli can prevent hypertension in healthy adults. Details: A meta-analysis of 3 prospective cohort studies in healthy adults suggests that eating 100 grams of broccoli daily is associated with a 12% reduced risk of hypertension. However, 2 other studies in the meta-analysis suggest that broccoli, consumed as part of a larger group of cruciferous vegetables, is associated with an 11% increased risk of hypertension per 100 grams eaten daily (112087).
• Prostate cancer. It is unclear if consumption of broccoli reduces the risk of developing prostate cancer; the available research is conflicting. In patients with prostate cancer, broccoli has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Some epidemiological research suggests that consumption of Brassica vegetables, such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and cabbage, is associated with a reduced risk of developing prostate cancer (14145). However, other epidemiological research has found no association (14147,15172). Clinical research in adults with prostate cancer shows that taking a whole food formulation containing broccoli powder 100 mg, turmeric powder 100 mg, pomegranate whole fruit powder 100 mg, and green tea extract 20 mg three times daily for 6 months prevents an increase in prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels. Mean PSA levels increased by 15% in the whole food formulation group, compared with 79% in the placebo group. Also, 46% of those taking the whole food formulation showed final PSA levels that were the same or lower than initial PSA levels, compared with 14% of those in the placebo group (89730). However, it is not yet known whether the whole food formulation reduces the risk of prostate cancer progression or recurrence. It is unclear if these effects are due to broccoli, other ingredients, or the combination. More evidence is needed to rate broccoli for these uses.

(Read more about BROCCOLI)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Acne. Although there is interest in using topical burdock for acne, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this purpose.
• Aging skin. It is unclear if topical burdock is beneficial for reducing wrinkles. Details: A very small study in females aged 39-65 years shows that applying an emulsion containing burdock fruit extract 1.2% to the face twice daily for 4 weeks slightly reduces skin wrinkles around the eyes when compared with placebo (37420).
• Atopic dermatitis (eczema). Although there is interest in using topical burdock for eczema, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this condition.
• Breast cancer. Oral burdock root has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Population research in breast cancer patients has found that using a specific product containing burdock root, sheep sorrel, slippery elm bark, and Indian rhubarb (Essiac, Resperin Canada Limited) is not associated with improved quality of life when compared with no intervention (37419).
• Common cold. Although there is interest in using oral burdock for symptoms of the common cold, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this condition.
• Diabetes. Although there is interest in using oral burdock for diabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this condition.
• Diverticulitis. It is unclear if oral burdock is beneficial in patients with diverticulitis. Details: A small open-label clinical study in patients with colonic diverticulitis shows that taking burdock tea (Ajikan, Co., Ltd.) providing 1.5 grams three times daily for a median of 26 months is associated with an acute diverticulitis recurrence rate of 11%, compared with 32% of those not taking burdock tea. Furthermore, the recurrence-free duration was increased by about 14 months. However, taking burdock tea for a median of 16 months does not prevent colonic diverticular bleeding recurrence (102696).
• Dry skin. Although there is interest in using topical burdock for dry skin, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this purpose.
• Gout. Although there is interest in using oral burdock for gout, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this condition.
• Hepatitis. Although there is interest in using oral burdock for hepatitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this condition.
• Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral burdock is beneficial in patients with metabolic syndrome. Details: A very small clinical study in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that drinking burdock extract 100 mL three times daily after meals for 16 weeks does not reduce body weight, abdominal fat, blood pressure, lipid levels, or glucose when compared with baseline or control (105667).
• Obesity. Although there is interest in using oral burdock for obesity, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this condition.
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Although there is interest in using oral burdock for UTI, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of burdock for this condition.
• Vaginitis. Topical burdock has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Observational research in adults and children with vaginitis has found that applying a specific solution containing burdock, chamomile, and aloe (Zelesse, ITF Research Pharma S.L.U., Alcobendas) to the vaginal area once or twice daily for 5-20 days is associated with moderate improvements in symptoms such as pruritus, erythema, and discharge when compared with baseline (102695,102697). The validity of this finding is limited by its observational nature and the lack of a control group. More evidence is needed to rate burdock for these uses.

(Read more about BURDOCK)

EFFECTIVE

• Dyspepsia. Oral calcium carbonate is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an antacid. Details: Taking calcium carbonate orally as an antacid is effective for treating dyspepsia (1843). Calcium carbonate has FDA approval as an antacid.
• Hyperkalemia. Intravenous calcium gluconate is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for preventing hyperkalemia-induced cardiac abnormalities. Details: Administering calcium gluconate intravenously can reverse electrocardiographic changes and arrhythmias induced by hyperkalemia (12946). Intravenous calcium gluconate is FDA-approved for preventing hyperkalemia-induced cardiac abnormalities.
• Hypocalcemia. Oral calcium treats and prevents hypocalcemia. Intravenous calcium is used to treat severe hypocalcemia. Details: Taking calcium orally is effective for treating and preventing hypocalcemia. Intravenous calcium gluconate, acetate, gluceptate, or chloride is effective for severe hypocalcemia or hypocalcemic tetany (12928).
• Kidney failure. Oral calcium carbonate or calcium acetate is used as a phosphate binder during kidney failure. Details: Taking calcium carbonate or calcium acetate orally is effective as a phosphate binder. Calcium acetate (PhosLo) appears to control hyperphosphatemia better than sevelamer (Renagel) (12943,12944,38990). Calcium citrate is not recommended for this purpose because it increases aluminum absorption and does not bind phosphate as efficiently as calcium acetate or calcium carbonate (21631). Some clinical research also shows that taking calcium orally reduces blood pressure in patients with kidney failure (975).

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Oral calcium in combination with vitamin D prevents bone density loss that occurs during long-term treatment with corticosteroids. Details: Taking calcium in combination with vitamin D as adjunctive therapy seems to be effective for reducing bone mineral density loss in people using corticosteroids long-term (982,1046,1830,1831,1832,4462,4463,4464,4465,4466)(4467,12945,38493). One specific product used in clinical research is Oscal (Marion Merrel Dow Inc.), which contains elemental calcium 500 mg per tablet plus vitamin D 125 IU per tablet (982). Another product used is Oscal 250 + D (SmithKline Beecham Healthcare), which contains elemental calcium 250 mg and vitamin D 125 IU per tablet (1046).
• Hyperparathyroidism. Oral calcium reduces parathyroid hormone levels in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism due to kidney failure. Details: Taking calcium orally reduces parathyroid hormone levels in patients with kidney failure and secondary hyperparathyroidism (1827,1828,1829,39174,39425). In elderly women, the combination of calcium and vitamin D reverses secondary hyperparathyroidism and reduces hip fracture risk (8818). Also, population research suggests increased calcium intake from the diet and supplements reduces the risk of primary hyperparathyroidism in women. Supplemental intakes of at least 500 mg/day and dietary intakes of approximately 1100 mg/day are considered to be protective (91353).
• Osteoporosis. Adequate calcium intake, from the diet and/or supplements, is recommended for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Details: The Bone Health and Osteoporosis Foundation (BHOF) recommends ensuring adequate calcium intake in line with the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) by age, along with adequate vitamin D intake, for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in adults over 50 years of age. Supplementation can be used to augment dietary intake when adequate dietary intake is not feasible (109425). In the US and Canada, foods containing at least 200 mg calcium with less phosphorous content than calcium can be labelled with a health claim regarding the relationship between adequate calcium intake and a reduced risk for osteoporosis (11940,102148). However, calcium supplementation is not recommended specifically for the primary prevention of osteoporosis. The US Preventive Task Force (USPSTF) states that the current evidence is insufficient to assess the balance of benefits and harms of vitamin D and calcium supplementation, alone or in combination, for the primary prevention of fractures in community dwelling adults without osteoporosis (95695). Also, calcium supplements do not seem to be effective for preventing loss of bone mineral density (BMD) during lactation (988), in patients who have had bone marrow transplantation (1817), or in patients who have had renal transplantation (4823,38736,38871). Maximal bone growth occurs in the teenage years, and then BMD in females remains relatively constant until age 30-40. After age 40, bone loss typically occurs at rates of 0.5% to 1% per year. In males, this occurs several decades later. Bone loss is more pronounced if dietary calcium intake is below the RDA, which is the case for many Americans (2571,2578). One meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in healthy children 7-14 years old shows that fortifying food with calcium 250-1000 mg daily for up to 24 months modestly improves femoral neck BMD, but not hip or spine BMD. However, the included trials did not supplement vitamin D (107232). During the 5 years immediately after menopause, calcium supplementation has very little effect on bone loss (2569,2570,2575,2576). The rapid loss of estrogen causes a high bone resorption rate, which increases serum calcium levels and therefore decreases intestinal absorption of calcium (2570). After this period, the typical rate of bone loss is 2% per year (2572,2576). Taking calcium 1000-1600 mg daily as carbonate, citrate, lactate gluconate, or citrate malate salt decreases this rate by 0.25% to 1% annually (977,979,981,2569,2571,2572,2575,2576,2578,6850)(38978,38980,39064). The greatest reductions (1% or more) are seen in the first 1-2 years of supplementation when bone remodeling foci can be filled (2569,2576). After this period, the differences in rate of loss between supplemented and non-supplemented females are closer to 0.25% per year (2569,2577). A meta-analysis of clinical evidence suggests that there is no additional benefit after 4 years (38980). Small clinical studies have found that continuous calcium supplementation at an average daily dose of 1050 mg, started after menopause and continued for 1.5-4 years, may reduce fracture rates by 26% when compared with no calcium supplementation. The largest of these studies was conducted in nursing home residents who also received daily vitamin D; the benefits of calcium, specifically, are unclear (39386). Some research also suggests that calcium and vitamin D improves primary prevention of osteoporotic fractures in some older individuals with osteoporosis, particularly the elderly and those who are no longer community dwelling (12930,38875,38849,39026,109471). However, not all research is positive. One large clinical trial in elderly adults with a low-trauma fracture show that taking calcium 1000 mg daily with or without vitamin D 800 IU daily for 2-7 years does not reduce the risk of a second fracture when compared with placebo (13073). Another clinical study shows that taking calcium 1000 mg daily plus vitamin D 800 IU daily does not prevent a second fracture in elderly patients, or prevent a first fracture in elderly patients with other risk factors such as low body weight (less than 58 kg, 127.6 pounds), smoking, family history of hip fracture, or fair or poor self-reported health (12929). Also, some exploratory research suggests that supplements may need to be continued indefinitely; in adults over 68 years of age, any effects of 2 years of calcium supplements on BMD appear to be lost within 2 years after discontinuing supplements (6853). Calcium has additive effects when used with other agents such as vitamin D, estrogens, or calcitonin. Whereas calcium alone generally reduces or prevents loss of BMD, combination with other agents can produce small increases in BMD ranging from 0.3% to 3.3% depending on the combination and dosages used (978,980,1836,2570,2571,2572,2576). However, one meta-analysis in healthy adults shows that fortifying foods with calcium 250-1000 mg daily, in conjunction with vitamin D supplementation, for up to 24 months does not improve BMD when compared with control (107232). The full potential of osteoporosis treatments cannot be realized without adequate calcium intake (2569,2570,2571,2572). Advise patients taking agents such as estrogens, calcitonin, bisphosphonates, or raloxifene (Evista) to ensure that their daily calcium intake meets the RDA. Use supplements if necessary. The usefulness of calcium in preventing osteoporosis in males is not as well-studied. Some observational research has found that calcium 870 mg daily is not associated with changes in BMD and bone loss in males (97201). However, clinical evidence suggests that taking calcium 1000 mg daily for 2 years might improve trabecular or cortical bone mass by 2% to 4% (980,8827,8873). Dietary supplementation with calcium and vitamin D seems to moderately reduce bone loss measured in the femoral neck, spine, and total body, and seems to reduce the incidence of nonvertebral fractures in older patients with osteopenia or low BMD (980).
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Adequate calcium intake seems to prevent symptoms of PMS. Details: There seems to be a link between low dietary calcium intake and symptoms of PMS (2004,6847,39007). Taking calcium 1000-1336 mg daily seems to significantly reduce depressed mood, water retention, and pain, especially if daily calcium intake is inadequate (1822,1823,1824,2004,95821). Calcium carbonate 1200 mg daily seems to decrease PMS symptom scores by about 18% when compared with placebo (1822). Increasing dietary calcium intake is also associated with a decreased risk of developing PMS. Consuming an average of 1283 mg of calcium per day from foods is associated with about a 30% lower risk of developing PMS compared with consuming an average of 529 mg daily (13094); however, taking calcium supplements does not appear to be associated with the risk of developing PMS.

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Colorectal cancer. Oral calcium seems to be beneficial for preventing colorectal cancer, especially in those with adequate vitamin D levels and normal body mass index (BMI). Details: Population studies have found that increased intake of dietary or supplemental calcium is associated with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer and colorectal adenomas (1047,8820,12120,38951,98898,98899). Clinical trials and meta-analyses of clinical research also show that taking calcium supplements 1.2-2 grams daily for up to 4 years can reduce the risk of colorectal adenoma recurrence by up to 29% (970,12118,12950,15267,34596,38718,39042,95817). However, not all research has been positive. Some meta-analyses of clinical research or observational studies suggest that taking calcium does not reduce the risk of familial adenomatous polyposis or colorectal cancer (34596,39042,39349). Other contradictory research suggests that postmenopausal females who take calcium 1000 mg daily plus vitamin D 400 IU daily do not have a reduced risk of developing colorectal cancer (14290); however, this finding may not be reliable due to the high baseline intake of calcium in study participants. The reason for these conflicting findings is not entirely clear. Vitamin D might be an important factor. People with lower than average vitamin D levels do not seem to get any benefit from calcium supplements (12118). Also, one meta-analysis of previous trials suggests that taking calcium 1200 mg daily reduces the risk of colorectal adenomas in people with a normal BMI, but not in those who are overweight or obese (99715). Despite this conflicting evidence, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim in 2005 stating that calcium supplements may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer and colorectal adenomas. However, the FDA has determined that there is little scientific evidence to support this claim (102366).
• Fetal bone mineralization. If calcium intakes are low during pregnancy, oral calcium seems to be beneficial for increasing fetal bone density. Details: With low dietary calcium intake (less than 562 mg elemental calcium daily) during pregnancy, calcium supplementation increases fetal bone mineralization and density. However, calcium supplementation does not offer any additional benefit if calcium intakes are adequate (3263,3264).
• Hypertension. Oral calcium seems to reduce blood pressure by a small amount. However, it is unclear if this reduction is clinically significant. Details: Many clinical trials and observational studies show that intake of calcium supplements or dietary calcium modestly reduces blood pressure in patients with or without hypertension, usually around 1-2 mmHg. Calcium seems to be more effective for certain subpopulations of patients, such as salt-sensitive people and patients with low baseline dietary calcium intake (945,972,974,976,984,1818,1819,1820,1821,6852)(13138,14406,38803,39063,39094,39221). Also, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that calcium intake during pregnancy reduces systolic blood pressure in offspring by 1-2 mmHg (38852). However, a large-scale clinical trial in postmenopausal females shows that taking vitamin D (cholecalciferol) 400 IU daily in combination with elemental calcium 1000 mg daily does not lower blood pressure or reduce the risk of developing hypertension (16714). Additionally, a meta-analysis of 8 clinical trials shows that taking calcium in combination with vitamin D for up to 7 years has no effect on blood pressure (98861). The validity of this finding is limited by the poor methodological quality of the included studies. Some observational research suggests that calcium can reduce the risk for hypertension. Population research in females aged 45 years and older suggests that higher intake of calcium from both diet and supplement sources is linked to a lower risk of developing hypertension when compared to lower calcium intake (14265). In 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim stating that calcium supplements may reduce the risk of hypertension. However, the FDA has concluded that this claim is based on supporting, rather than conclusive, evidence (102367).
• Osteomalacia. Oral calcium seems to reverse osteomalacia caused by very low calcium intakes. Details: Osteomalacia is commonly caused by vitamin D deficiency; however, very low calcium intake can also lead to osteomalacia in children and adults. Calcium supplementation can reverse osteomalacia caused by calcium deficiency. Along with appropriate vitamin D supplementation, individuals at risk of osteomalacia need sufficient calcium intake (94819).
• Pre-eclampsia. Oral calcium seems to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia in high risk pregnancies, especially if calcium intakes are low. Details: Although there is some conflicting evidence (971,38756), most clinical research shows that taking calcium orally 1-2 grams daily reduces pregnancy-related hypertension and pre-eclampsia (973,1833,8828,39043,39319,39426,96480). Calcium appears to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia by about 50% when compared with placebo. One meta-analysis of 19 controlled trials involving over 29,000 pregnancies found that for every 19 females treated with calcium, one episode of pre-eclampsia would be avoided (96480). Calcium appears to have the greatest effect in individuals at high-risk of pre-eclampsia or with low calcium levels, and when taken at greater than or equal to 20 weeks of gestation (15029,38497,96480,99714). In 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim regarding the use of calcium supplements to reduce the risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension and pre-eclampsia. However, due to the limited and conflicting research available at that time, the FDA stated that this outcome was highly unlikely. Since then, large, high-quality clinical research has supported this finding. In fact, in 2016 the World Health Organization (WHO) released a recommendation to prescribe oral calcium supplementation 1.5-2 grams daily during pregnancies at high risk of pre-eclampsia if dietary calcium intakes are low, in order to prevent pre-eclampsia (97347).
• Rickets. Oral calcium seems to reverse rickets caused by very low calcium intakes. Details: Rickets is commonly caused be vitamin D deficiency; however, very low calcium intake can also lead to rickets. Calcium supplementation can reverse rickets caused by calcium deficiency (94819). A small clinical study in children with nutritional rickets shows that taking calcium 500-2000 mg daily for 24 weeks improves radiographically measured rickets caused by calcium deficiency. Rickets seems to improve more rapidly with calcium 1000 mg compared to calcium 500 mg. However, increasing the calcium dose to 2000 mg daily is not more beneficial than calcium 1000 mg daily (98904).
• Tooth retention. Oral calcium with vitamin D seems to help with tooth retention in the elderly population. Details: A clinical trial in the elderly population shows that taking calcium citrate malate 500 mg daily along with vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 700 IU daily orally for 3 years reduces the risk of tooth loss by about 52% when compared with placebo (8816).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Breast cancer. Oral calcium does not seem to be beneficial for breast cancer prevention. Details: Although some population research disagrees (15631,39041,95811,107237), most research shows that increased calcium intake is not associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer (15631,16715,98895,107236,107237). Subgroup analyses of population research suggest that calcium intake may reduce the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal, but not pre-menopausal, adults (15631,107237). Another subgroup analysis in a large meta-analysis of population research also suggests that dietary intake may reduce estrogen receptor(ER)-negative breast cancer, but not ER-positive breast cancer (107236). However, most other research has not evaluated the effects of calcium supplementation or intake on breast cancer subtypes. The best evidence to date, from a large scale clinical trial (Women's Health Initiative), shows that taking vitamin D (cholecalciferol) 400 IU daily plus calcium 1000 mg daily for 7 years after menopause does not reduce the risk of developing invasive breast cancer at the end of the study and 5 years after the end of the intervention (16715,98895).
• Fractures. Although oral calcium prevents fractures in osteoporosis, most evidence shows that calcium does NOT prevent factures in people who do not have osteoporosis. See Osteoporosis discussion for more information on the use of calcium for this purpose. Details: The most recent and robust meta-analysis of clinical research shows that calcium supplementation with or without vitamin D is NOT associated with reduced fractures in older adults without osteoporosis (95822). A large-scale study in postmenopausal females aged 50-79 years suggests calcium 1000 mg plus vitamin D 400 IU daily for 7 years only modestly improves bone mineral density (BMD) and does not significantly reduce fracture risk. This lack of effect may have been due to low adherence to the treatment regimen. In those who were 80% adherent, the combination of calcium plus vitamin D reduced the risk of hip fracture by about 29% (14282). Also, some clinical research shows that taking calcium carbonate 1000 mg and vitamin D 400 IU for 5 years does not attenuate loss of height after menopause when compared with placebo (95810). Additional meta-analyses of clinical and observational evidence suggest that calcium supplementation is not associated with a reduced risk of vertebral or nonvertebral fractures, such as hip fractures (38589,38888,98895). Some other research has suggested that calcium in combination with vitamin D reduces fracture risk in older patients without osteoporosis (980,1836,8818,12930,12933,12952,38849,102145,107235); however, this research is confounded by a number of variables, including the presence of hormonal therapy and differing levels of fracture risk at baseline (1836,8818,95822). Conflicting findings on this topic might also be due to genetic differences in patient populations. A population analysis of the Women's Health Initiative study found that, in older females with the lowest genetic susceptibility to low bone mineral density (BMD), taking calcium with vitamin D is associated with a reduction in fracture risk. However, in females with a higher genetic susceptibility to low BMD, there is no association between supplementation and fracture risk. This might be because individuals with a lower susceptibility to low BMD are also more responsive to calcium and vitamin D supplementation (97357). As of April 2018, the U.S. Preventative Services Task Force (USPSTF) concludes that there is insufficient evidence to determine whether supplementing with vitamin D >400 IU daily along with calcium >1000 mg daily is safe and effective for preventing fractures in community dwelling adults without vitamin D deficiency, osteoporosis, or a history of fracture. USPSTF recommends against supplementing with calcium 1000 mg daily or less along with vitamin D 400 IU daily or less for preventing primary fractures in community-dwelling postmenopausal females (95695).
• Obesity. Oral calcium does not seem to improve weight loss. Details: Observational research has found that adults and children with low calcium intake are more likely to gain weight, have a higher body mass index (BMI), and be overweight or obese when compared to people with high calcium intake (12124,12125,12126,12127,14265). Additional observational research has found that increasing calcium intake is associated with weight loss in females; the results in males have been conflicting (12127,15602,15603). Despite these findings from observational research and a few small clinical studies (12128,15397,14438,98905), most clinical research has found that increased calcium intake does not increase weight loss (12052,13138,15396,15399,38985,39004,97356). The most recent meta-analysis of 20 clinical studies shows that daily dietary and supplemental calcium intake that meets the dietary reference intake (DRI) of 1000 mg or more daily does not increase weight loss in overweight individuals or patients with obesity when compared with intake below the DRI (95813). An older meta-analysis of 13 clinical trials also shows that increased dietary and supplemental calcium intake does not increase weight loss (15605).
• Overall mortality. Oral calcium does not seem to reduce overall mortality. Details: While some population research has found that calcium taken in combination with vitamin D in older females is associated with a lower risk of death (97353), most evidence shows that calcium, with or without vitamin D, has no effect on all-cause mortality (93533,97308).

INEFFECTIVE

• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Oral calcium does not reduce the risk of developing CVD and may actually increase risk in some patients. Details: Clinical research shows that calcium does not decrease CVD risk. Several separate meta-analyses of clinical and population research involving over 50,000 patients show that taking calcium 600-1200 mg daily for up to 7 years does not reduce the risk of CVD-related outcomes, including stroke and myocardial infarction, cardiovascular death, or overall mortality (39018,91350,92994,93533,97308,98902,107231,107233). No association was found between total dietary or supplemental calcium intake with or without vitamin D and the risk of CVD or mortality (91350,93533,97308). In fact, some population and clinical research has found that when calcium is used alone or with vitamin D, there is an INCREASED risk of CVD and coronary heart disease (38077,107233). However, other clinical research disagrees (93533). One meta-analysis of high-quality randomized controlled trials shows that taking calcium for 2-7 years increases the risk of CVD and coronary heart disease by 1.1-1.2 times when compared with control. However, the majority of the included research evaluated postmenopausal females and it is unclear if this finding is applicable to other populations (107233).
• Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Intravenous calcium does not prevent nerve pain in patients given oxaliplatin. Oral calcium has not been evaluated for this purpose. Details: While pooled analyses of cohort studies and randomized controlled trials suggest that calcium and magnesium infusion decreases the incidence of oxaliplatin-induced neurotoxicity, a meta-analysis of only randomized controlled trials shows that the infusion has no effect in preventing neurotoxicity (90028,90029,90031). Additionally, clinical trials show that administering calcium gluconate 1 gram with magnesium sulfate 1 gram intravenously immediately before, or before and after, the administration of a single oxaliplatin cycle (90005), or over the entire 6-cycle course of oxaliplatin, does not improve symptoms of neurotoxicity when compared with placebo (96474).
• Myocardial infarction (MI). Oral calcium does not prevent MI. When taken in the absence of vitamin D, oral calcium may increase the risk of MI. Details: Population research has found that increased dietary intake of calcium is associated with a decreased risk of MI (91350). However, a 2010 meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking calcium at a dose of at least 500 mg daily is associated with an approximate 30% INCREASE in the risk of MI in patients over the age of 40. According to this analysis, one additional case of MI will occur for every 69 patients that take calcium for 5 years (17482). A more recent meta-analysis of high-quality randomized controlled trials shows that taking calcium for 2-7 years increases the risk of MI by 1.2 times when compared with control. However, the majority of the included research studied postmenopausal females and it is unclear if this finding is applicable to other populations (107233) In contrast, other meta-analyses of clinical research have shown that taking calcium for up to 7 years is NOT associated with an increased risk of MI, including a meta-analysis that only included postmenopausal females (93533,107231). Reasons for these discrepancies are not entirely clear. It may relate to whether calcium is taken as monotherapy or in combination with vitamin D. When taken with vitamin D, which is commonly recommended, calcium supplementation does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of MI in postmenopausal females (93533). Also, the association between calcium supplementation and MI risk may be influenced by the amount of calcium consumed as part of the diet. Supplementation with calcium may be associated with an increased risk of MI in people with dietary calcium intake above 805 mg daily, but not in those with dietary calcium intake below 805 mg daily (17482)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Alcohol use disorder. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for alcohol use disorder. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking calcium carbonate 800 mg and vitamin D 200 IU orally daily for 14 days modestly reduces alcohol craving scores and withdrawal scores when compared with placebo in adults with alcohol dependence that are undergoing withdrawal. Taking calcium carbonate did not reduce the need for diazepam; however, the study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups (107234).
• Atherosclerosis. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for atherosclerosis. Details: A population study has found that taking calcium 1.2 grams daily for 3 years has no effect on carotid intima thickness or carotid atherosclerosis incidence. A total calcium intake (dietary and supplemental) of at least 1794 mg daily in older females may be associated with a decreased risk of carotid atherosclerosis when compared with a total calcium intake below 1010 mg daily (97351).
• Autism spectrum disorder. It is unclear if oral calcium during pregnancy is beneficial for reducing the odds of autism spectrum disorder in the offspring. Details: A small observational study found that calcium supplementation during pregnancy is associated with a 52% reduced odds of an autism spectrum disorder in the offspring (98900).
• Cancer. Oral calcium alone does not seem to prevent cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium with vitamin D is beneficial for preventing cancer. Details: Taking calcium alone does not seem to significantly reduce the risk of cancer (12118,15629). The role of calcium in cancer prevention when taken along with vitamin D is controversial, as conflicting results exist. One clinical trial shows that healthy postmenopausal females who take supplemental calcium 1400-1500 mg daily plus vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 1100 IU daily have a 60% lower relative risk for developing cancer of any type. Approximately 25 postmenopausal females would need to take this combination for 4 years to prevent one occurrence of cancer (15629). However, a more recent clinical study shows that healthy postmenopausal females who take supplemental calcium 1500 mg daily plus vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 2000 IU daily do not have a reduced risk of cancer at 4 years (93943). Reasons for the disparate results are not entirely clear. The discrepancies do not appear to be related to baseline vitamin D levels or different study populations. It is possible that, given the 10-year time lapse between the two publications, the discrepancies result from differences in cancer detection capability. Also, since cancer risk was a secondary outcome measure in the earlier study and a primary outcome measure in the more recent study, it is possible that the discrepancies result from differences in statistical methodologies. The effect of vitamin D and calcium on cancer risk in males and younger patients is not known. There is also interest in using calcium for reducing the risk of hematological malignancies. An analysis of the Women's Health Initiative study shows that taking calcium 1000 mg daily in combination with vitamin D3 400 IU for up to 10 years is associated with a 20% reduction in the risk of hematologic malignancies when compared with placebo. However, no effect on hematologic malignancy related mortality was seen (97354).
• Depression. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for depression prevention. Details: Population research has found no association between a higher dietary intake of calcium and the risk of depression when compared with a lower dietary intake of calcium (96480).
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for type 2 diabetes prevention. Details: Some population research has found that a higher intake of calcium from diet or supplements, alone or in combination with vitamin D, is associated with a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes when compared with lower calcium intake (14265,16713,96473). However, population research is often limited by confounding variables. For example, one analysis found that any beneficial effect might be influenced by concomitant magnesium intake (96473). Furthermore, other population research has found that serum calcium levels higher than 9.6 mg/dL are associated with greater risk of developing diabetes in Chinese adults with osteoporosis. This study is limited because it was not determined whether increased serum calcium was due to increased calcium intake or another factor such as parathyroid function (95815).
• Dysmenorrhea. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for reducing pain associated with dysmenorrhea. Details: Clinical research shows that taking calcium carbonate 1000 mg with vitamin D 5000 IU daily for three menstrual cycles does not reduce pain when compared with placebo in patients with primary dysmenorrhea (95821). However, calcium carbonate 1000 mg taken alone seems to reduce pain when compared with placebo.
• Endometrial cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for endometrial cancer prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of population research suggests that calcium supplements may reduce the risk of endometrial cancer, but dietary calcium does not seem to have any effect (38893).
• Fall prevention. It is unclear if oral calcium with vitamin D is beneficial for preventing falls. Details: Research suggests that calcium in combination with vitamin D, but not calcium alone, might prevent falls by decreasing body sway and normalizing systolic blood pressure (6362,11939,39038). Some experts think the combination of calcium and vitamin D may be important (11916). Preliminary clinical research in adults residing in a health care facility shows that taking vitamin D supplements while increasing dietary calcium and protein for 2 years reduces falls by 11% when compared with standard diets. Intervention diets were supplemented with milk, yogurt, and cheese to provide calcium 1142 mg and protein 69 grams daily (107235). There might also be different effects in females compared to males. In one study, females aged 65 years or older who took vitamin D 700 IU plus calcium citrate 500 mg daily over a 3-year period had a 46% lower risk of falling. However, this combination did not decrease falls in males (14291).
• Fluorosis. Oral calcium has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Taking calcium orally, in combination with ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and vitamin D, seems to be effective for reducing excessive fluoride levels in children and improving symptoms of fluorosis in children aged 6-12 years (990).
• Heart failure. It is unclear if oral calcium in combination with vitamin D is beneficial for preventing heart failure. Details: Based on a secondary analysis of a large-scale clinical trial (Women's Health Initiative), taking calcium 1000 mg with vitamin D 400 IU daily does not reduce the risk of heart failure in the overall population or in individuals at high risk. However, in a subgroup of postmenopausal females without risk factors for heart failure, calcium and vitamin D supplementation might reduce the risk of developing heart failure by about 37% (97307).
• Hypercholesterolemia. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for hypercholesterolemia. Details: Some evidence shows that taking calcium carbonate 400 mg three times daily reduces low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels by 4% and increases high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels by 4% after 6 weeks of treatment when used in combination with a low-fat diet (American Heart Association Step 1) (2557). In contrast, a study in females with dyslipidemia shows that taking calcium 800 mg daily for 2 years might INCREASE total cholesterol levels by about 12 mg/dL when compared with placebo. This same study showed an association between calcium supplementation and an increase in total cholesterol levels and carotid intimal thickness in postmenopausal females, but not premenopausal females (97350). A recent meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials which included both healthy patients and patients with dyslipidemia shows that taking calcium 500-2000 mg daily and vitamin D 200-7142 IU daily modestly improves HDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels, but not LDL cholesterol levels, when compared with placebo. Subgroup analyses suggest that calcium and vitamin D supplementation is more effective in patients with dyslipidemia at baseline. It is unclear if this effect is due to calcium, vitamin D, or the combination (107227). However, other research shows that taking a specific supplement containing calcium 600 mg plus vitamin D 200 IU (Caltrate 600 D, Wyeth Consumer Healthcare Inc.) twice daily in combination with calorie restriction does not reduce total or LDL cholesterol levels when compared with placebo (15601).
• Lead toxicity. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for reducing blood levels of lead. Details: Lead is mobilized along with calcium from bone during pregnancy and lactation, resulting in increased serum concentrations of lead. One clinical study suggests that calcium supplementation does not significantly decrease these elevated lead concentrations (1586). However, another clinical study suggests that taking calcium reduces blood lead levels by 11% when compared with placebo, with greatest effects observed in those with high baseline levels of lead (38957).
• Lyme disease. Although there is interest in using oral calcium for Lyme disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of calcium for this condition.
• Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral calcium alone or with vitamin D is beneficial for metabolic syndrome prevention. Details: Population research has found that a higher intake of calcium from diet and supplements alone, or in combination with vitamin D, is associated with a lower risk of developing metabolic syndrome when compared with lower calcium intake (14265,16713).
• Nephrotic syndrome. It is unclear if oral calcium with vitamin D is beneficial for preventing nephrotic syndrome. Details: Clinical research shows that taking calcium 500-1000 mg daily for 3 months in combination with vitamin D3 60,000 IU daily or weekly for 4 weeks has no effect on bone mineral density or the risk of relapse in children with steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome (97355).
• Nonmelanoma skin cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for preventing keratinocyte carcinomas. Details: In middle aged and older adults recently diagnosed with a colorectal adenoma, clinical research shows that taking calcium 1200 mg daily as calcium carbonate for 3-5 years does not reduce the incidence of keratinocyte cancer when compared with placebo over a median of 8 years. A sub-group analysis shows that taking calcium alone or with vitamin D3 1000 IU daily reduced the risk of invasive cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma by a moderate amount, but had no effect on the risk of basal cell carcinoma (104622).
• Oral mucositis. When used in combination with fluoride treatments, a calcium phosphate mouth rinse seems to prevent and reduce mucositis-related pain in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Details: A small clinical study in patients undergoing HSCT shows that using a particular mouth rinse (Caphosol, EUSA Pharma) containing calcium phosphate, in combination with fluoride treatments, reduces days of mucositis, the duration of pain, and the dose and days of morphine used when compared with placebo and fluoride treatment (38611).
• Ovarian cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for ovarian cancer prevention. Details: An older meta-analysis of 12 cohort studies found that dietary calcium intake is not associated with a reduced risk of ovarian cancer (38792). However, a more recent pooled analysis of 15 cohort and case-control studies has found that the highest intake of dietary or dairy calcium is associated with a 20% lower risk of ovarian cancer when compared to the lowest intake (97349).
• Postpartum depression. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for reducing postpartum depression risk. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking calcium 2 grams daily beginning at 11-21 weeks gestation reduces depression at 12 weeks postpartum when compared with placebo. However, no benefit is seen at 6 weeks postpartum (39447).
• Pregnancy-related leg cramps. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for preventing leg cramps during pregnancy. Details: A small clinical study shows that taking calcium 1 gram twice daily (as a mixture of salts) for 2 weeks can reduce pregnancy-related leg cramps during the second half of pregnancy when compared with no treatment (2567).
• Prostate cancer. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for prostate cancer prevention. Details: Some clinical research shows that taking calcium 1200 mg daily might decrease the risk of developing prostate cancer (14133). However, some epidemiological research suggests that consuming very high doses of calcium, over 2000 mg daily, might actually increase the risk of developing prostate cancer (14134). Some epidemiological research also suggests that doses greater than 1500 mg daily increase the risk of poorly differentiated, clinically advanced, and fatal prostate cancer (14132). Consumption of dairy products has also been weakly linked to a modest increase in risk of prostate cancer (98894). However, contradictory research suggests that there is no association between dietary intake of calcium and overall risk of prostate cancer (14131,14132,104630).
• Stroke. It is unclear if oral calcium is beneficial for stroke prevention. Details: Some population research has found that increasing dietary calcium intake is associated with a decreased risk of ischemic stroke (4822,38678). However, other population research has found that increasing dietary calcium intake is not associated with a decreased risk of stroke (91350). One meta-analysis of high-quality randomized controlled trials shows that taking calcium for 2-7 years does not affect the risk of stroke when compared with control. However, the majority of the included research evaluated postmenopausal females, and it is unclear if this finding is applicable to other populations (107233).
• Vertigo. Oral calcium with vitamin D might reduce positional vertigo; the effect of calcium when used alone is unclear. Details: A large clinical study in adults with recurrent benign paroxysmal positional vertigo shows that taking calcium 500 mg and vitamin D 400 IU twice daily for one year reduces annual recurrence of vertigo by 27% when compared with no treatment. The number needed to treat to prevent vertigo was 3.7 (103681). It is unclear if this benefit is due to vitamin D, calcium, or the combination. More evidence is needed to rate calcium for these uses.

(Read more about CALCIUM)

There is insufficient reliable information available about the effectiveness of camu camu.

(Read more about CAMU CAMU)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Vitamin A deficiency. Some preliminary clinical research shows that consuming one spoonful of carrot jam daily for 10 weeks improves growth velocity when compared with control in children with vitamin A deficiency (25819). Other preliminary research shows that consuming 100 grams of grated carrot daily for 60 days improves vitamin A status when compared with placebo in lactating women at risk for vitamin A deficiency (67861).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Breast cancer. A meta-analysis of observational research has found that consuming a diet highest in carrots is associated with a 21% decreased odds of developing breast cancer when compared with consuming a diet lowest in carrots (101715).
• Colorectal cancer. A large observational study in older Danish adults shows that self-reported high consumption of raw carrot (2-4 carrots weekly or greater than 32 grams daily) is associated with a 17% lower likelihood of colorectal cancer diagnosis, whereas lower carrot consumption is not associated with a decreased risk. The validity of these findings may be limited by selection bias, recall bias, and other confounding factors (106559).
• Fibromyalgia. Preliminary clinical research shows that consuming a mostly raw, pure vegetarian diet that includes two to four 240 mL servings of carrot juice daily for 7 months might improve fibromyalgia symptoms in some people (98057). The effect of carrot alone on fibromyalgia is unknown.
• Prostate cancer. Population research has found that higher intake of carrot is associated with an 18% decrease in the odds of developing prostate cancer. Increasing carrot consumption by 10 grams daily or 1 serving per week is associated with a 4% to 5% decrease in the odds of developing prostate cancer (96307). More evidence is needed to rate carrot for these uses.

(Read more about CARROT)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Pregnancy-related iron deficiency. Oral chlorella, which contains iron, can help to prevent iron deficiency and anemia in pregnancy. Details: A small clinical study in Japanese patients in their first trimester of pregnancy shows that taking chlorella (Sun Chlorella A, Sun Chlorella Corp.) 2 grams three times daily, providing 7.2 mg iron daily, starting at the 12-18th week of gestation and continuing until delivery, reduces the incidence of maternal anemia, defined as a hemoglobin level less than 11 g/dL, to about 30%, compared with about 60% in patients receiving no intervention (95013).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Brain tumor. It is unclear if oral chlorella is beneficial in patients with glioma. Details: A small clinical study in patients with glioma shows that taking chlorella tablets plus chlorella liquid extract over 2 years might improve tolerability of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, but does not seem to affect tumor progression or survival, when compared to baseline (6804). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Depression. It is unclear if oral chlorella is beneficial as an adjunct to conventional antidepressant therapy in patients with major depressive disorder. Details: One open-label clinical trial in patients with major depressive disorder shows that taking chlorella extract tablets (ALGOMED, Bioprodukte Prof. Steinberg Produktions-und Vertreibs GmbH & Co.) 600 mg three times daily in addition to standard antidepressant therapy for 6 weeks improves subjective symptoms of depression and anxiety, measured on the Beck Depression Inventory II and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, when compared with standard antidepressant therapy alone (92132). The validity of this finding is limited by the large number of patients lost to follow-up and a lack of blinding.
• Dysmenorrhea. It is unclear if oral chlorella improves symptoms of dysmenorrhea. Details: A small clinical study in females 18-35 years of age with primary dysmenorrhea shows that taking chlorella (American Super Golden Med) 1500 mg daily for 8 weeks modestly decreases the severity and duration of painful menstrual cramps when compared with placebo (99882). This study is limited by small sample size and unclear allocation concealment.
• Exercise-induced respiratory infections. It is unclear if oral chlorella can prevent respiratory infections related to exercise. Details: A small clinical trial in physically active adults shows that taking chlorella (Sun Chlorella A, Sun Chlorella Corp.) 3 grams twice daily for 6 weeks increases salivary IgA, a marker of immune response, but doesn't improve the duration or severity of upper respiratory symptoms or reduce the risk for upper respiratory tract infections when compared with placebo (99881). However, this study was likely underpowered to detect differences in these outcomes.
• Fatigue. It is unclear if oral chlorella improves fatigue from exercise. Details: A small clinical trial in healthy males shows that taking chlorella (Chlorella Kogyo Co., Ltd) 2 grams three times daily for 4 weeks does not decrease exercise-induced fatigue or fatigue at rest when compared with placebo (99880).
• Fibromyalgia. It is unclear if oral chlorella improves symptoms of fibromyalgia. Details: A small open-label clinical trial in people with fibromyalgia shows that taking chlorella tablets (Sun Chlorella) 10 grams plus a liquid chlorella extract (Wakasa Gold) 100 mL daily for 2 months improves general symptoms and pain scores when compared with baseline (5890). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Halitosis. Although there is interest in using oral chlorella for halitosis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of chlorella for this purpose.
• Hepatitis C. It is unclear if oral chlorella improves outcomes in patients with chronic hepatitis C infection. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 infection shows that taking chlorella tablets (Sun Chlorella A, Sun Chlorella Corp) 1500 mg twice daily for one week, then 1500 mg three times daily for 11 weeks, in addition to an extract containing 82 mg/mL of chlorella (Wakasa Gold, Sun Chlorella Corp) 30 mL twice daily for 12 weeks, decreases alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels, but not aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or HCV RNA levels, when compared to baseline (92130). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Hyperlipidemia. It is unclear if oral chlorella reduces lipid levels. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with mild hypercholesterolemia, defined as total cholesterol between 200-250 mg/dL, who are not using lipid-lowering medications, suggests that taking chlorella (Daesang Corp.) 1664 mg three times daily for 4 weeks reduces total cholesterol by 1.6% and triglycerides by 10.3%, but does not affect low-density lipoprotein cholesterol or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, when compared with placebo (92131). This study was limited by its short duration and small size.
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral chlorella is beneficial in patients with hypertension. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with mild to moderate hypertension shows that taking chlorella 10 grams and chlorella extract 100 mL daily for 1-2 months does not reduce blood pressure when compared to baseline (41811).
• Metabolic syndrome. Although there is interest in using oral chlorella for metabolic syndrome, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of chlorella for this condition.
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Oral chlorella has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small open-label clinical trial in patients with NAFLD shows that taking chlorella extract 1200 mg with metformin 750 mg and vitamin E 200 mg daily for 3 months decreases alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and triglyceride levels when compared to baseline. Treatment with metformin 1250 mg and vitamin E 200 mg daily without chlorella does not appear to improve these outcome measures (99878). This study is limited by the lack of statistical comparison between groups.
• Peptic ulcers. Although there is interest in using oral chlorella for peptic ulcers, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of chlorella for this purpose.
• Pregnancy-induced hypertension. It is unclear if oral chlorella is beneficial for preventing pregnancy-induced hypertension. Details: A small clinical study in healthy Japanese patients in their first trimester of pregnancy shows that taking chlorella (Sun Chlorella A, Sun Chlorella Corp.) 2 grams three times daily, starting at the 12-18th week of gestation and continuing until delivery, reduces proteinuria and leg edema, but does not affect blood pressure, when compared with no intervention (95013). It is unclear if chlorella is beneficial in patients who are at risk for hypertension during pregnancy.
• Ulcerative colitis. Although there is interest in using oral chlorella for ulcerative colitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of chlorella for this condition. More evidence is needed to rate chlorella for these uses.

(Read more about CHLORELLA)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Bladder cancer. Observational research has found that eating about 0.88 cups of cruciferous vegetables, such as cabbage, Brussels sprout, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, or collards, decreases the risk of developing bladder cancer by about 30% in men and women (14864).
• Breast cancer. Population research has found that higher intake of cruciferous vegetables, including broccoli, Brussels sprout, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, and kale, is associated with a slight increase in the risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women, while higher intake of cruciferous vegetables appears to be associated with a slight but statistically insignificant decrease in the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women (26188).
• Prostate cancer. Population research has found that people who consume higher amounts of green leafy vegetables, such as collard, spinach, mustard greens, and turnip greens, do not have a significantly lower risk of developing prostate cancer when compared with those who eat lower amounts (25420). More evidence is needed to rate Brussels sprout for these uses.

(Read more about COLLARD)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Cranberry products may possibly reduce the risk of repeat, symptomatic UTI in females with recurrent UTI, in children, and in people susceptible to UTI following kidney transplant, urogenital surgery, or radiation therapy near the urogenital system. While some positive evidence exists, most research suggests that cranberry products do not seem to reduce the risk of UTI in older adults in institutions, pregnant patients, or adults with neuromuscular dysfunction of the bladder. Cranberry is not recommended for the treatment of UTI in any population. Details: Cranberry appears to reduce the risk of UTI in some populations but not others. In healthy females at an increased risk of UTI or history of recurrent UTI, meta-analyses of clinical trials show that cranberry products decrease the overall risk of recurrent or first-time UTI by 26% to 35% (46473,92578,96739,111407). In 2019, the American Urological Association published guidelines stating that, based on low certainty evidence, clinicians may offer cranberry tablets or juice as prophylaxis for females with recurrent UTIs. Due to a lack of compelling evidence for any specific product, the guidelines recommend choosing formulations based on availability and tolerability (100855). In 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved qualified health claims stating that consuming cranberry juice in doses of at least 8 ounces daily, or cranberry supplements in doses of at least 500 mg daily, may help reduce the risk of recurrent UTI in healthy females. However, the FDA has concluded that there is limited scientific evidence to support these claims (103302). The benefits of cranberry for prevention of UTI during pregnancy are unclear. Subgroup analysis of meta-analyses suggest that cranberry supplementation does not reduce the risk of UTI in pregnant adults compared with placebo or no treatment (100855,111407). A preliminary clinical study shows that drinking cranberry juice 240 mL three times daily until delivery does not reduce the frequency of asymptomatic bacteriuria or symptomatic UTI during pregnancy, although the study was not adequately powered to detect a difference in these outcomes (16415). In contrast, one preliminary clinical trial shows that UTI frequency was reduced in 70.5% of those ingesting cranberry juice 250 mL four times daily, compared with only 32% of those taking placebo (93670). In children, a meta-analysis shows that taking cranberry products probably reduces the risk of subsequent symptomatic UTIs by up to 54% compared with placebo or no treatment, but does not specify a particular formulation (111407). Clinical trials show that daily consumption of cranberry syrup (Pharmatoka), cranberry juice (Cranberry UR-50, Kikkoman Company) 100 mL, cranberry-lingonberry juice 50 mL, and cranberry extract (Anthocran) 120 mg reduce the risk of UTI recurrence in children (46452,96733,96737,108055). In contrast, another clinical trial shows that drinking cranberry juice (Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc) 5 mL/kg daily for 6 months does not reduce the incidence of recurrent UTI when compared with placebo, although it does decrease the total number of UTI episodes and length of antimicrobial therapy per child (46470). In older, institutionalized adults, a meta-analysis of 5 studies evaluating the effectiveness of cranberry products shows little or no benefit in preventing symptomatic, culture-verified UTIs (111407). A clinical study in females residing in long-term care (LTC) facilities shows that taking a specific cranberry supplement (Ellura, Pharmatoka) once daily for 1 year does not reduce the incidence of UTI or asymptomatic bacteriuria (92517). However, clinical trials of cranberry products in elderly patients in LTC facilities suggest that cranberry may be more effective in patients at a higher risk for UTIs, such as those with diabetes, long-term catheterization, or recurrent UTIs (90041,108055), and in patients with E. coli-related UTIs (46389,46472). In one small study, providing all patients living in a LTC facility with 4 ounces of cranberry juice or six tablets of a specific concentrated cranberry product (Azo-Cranberry, i-Health, Inc.) daily for 13 months decreased the facility's overall monthly UTI rate from 27.7 to 20.7 (46492). In another clinical trial, taking cranberry juice cocktail (Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc) 300 mL daily for 6 months decreased the rate of asymptomatic bacteriuria plus pyuria by 13% in older females living in institutional settings (7008). In another clinical trial, taking a cranberry capsule 500 mg, standardized to 1.8% PACs, twice daily for 12 months decreased the risk of UTI by around 26% in patients at high-risk for UTI, including those with catheters, diabetes, or at least one UTI in the previous 12 months (90041). Meta-analyses and clinical research show that cranberry products do not reduce the risk of UTI associated with neurogenic bladder, neuromuscular dysfunction, or insufficient bladder emptying in adults or children (2811,6759,11980,46379,46425,46473,90044,92578,96737,108055,111407). However, one study found benefit in patients with neurogenic bladder due to spinal cord injury taking cranberry capsules (Cran-Max, Proprietary Nutritionals, Inc.) 500 mg daily (46443). Cranberry products have also been evaluated in a variety of other high-risk populations, with mixed results. A meta-analysis of 7 studies shows that cranberry products reduce the risk of UTIs in people with increased susceptibility to UTI due to an intervention (e.g., kidney transplant, radiotherapy to urogenital system, or urogenital surgery) when compared with placebo (111407). Cranberry extracts do not seem to reduce the risk of UTIs in individuals undergoing hysterectomy and/or anterior vaginal repair (46465), pelvic floor surgery (104245), or in patients with multiple sclerosis (46496,111407). Taking cranberry powder capsules (NurtiCran90, Petefa AB) 550 mg three times daily for 5 days does not reduce the UTI rate at days 5 or 14 when compared with placebo in postoperative females with hip fracture receiving a urinary catheter; however, the study was not adequately powered to detect a difference in this outcome (96734). Other preliminary clinical research in elderly males with benign prostatic hyperplasia and a recent UTI shows that taking a standardized cranberry extract (Anthocran) 120 mg daily for 60 days reduces the UTI recurrence rate by about 62% when compared with placebo (96735). Cranberry supplements have been studied in a variety of formulations, but it is unclear whether certain cranberry formulations are better than others (111407). Most positive studies utilized oral cranberry EXTRACTS in tablet, powder, or capsule form (6760,17210,46366,46432,93669,111407). Some products (Cranberry Supreme, GNC; Cranpac, IPCA Laboratories), taken as 200 mg twice daily, were standardized to provide 100-120 mg of proanthocyanidins (PACs) daily (46432). Some of these studies used capsules containing 400 mg cranberry solids twice daily (6760) or Natural Cranberry Extract (Solgar Vitamin and Herb Co.) 800 mg twice daily (17210). However, a clinical study in healthy females with a history of UTIs shows that taking a specific cranberry extract product (Urophenol; Diana Food) does not reduce the risk of symptomatic UTI when taken at a dose of 120 mg twice daily, standardized to 15% PACs, or at a dose of 1 mg twice daily, standardized to 1% PACs. A subgroup analysis suggests that the high dose may have modest benefit in those with less than 5 UTIs a year (108054). Cranberry JUICE or syrup has yielded mixed results for the prevention of UTI in patients with a history of recurrent UTIs, with some showing significant benefit (8253,46366,96736,111407). These studies used cranberry juice 240-250 mL 1-3 times daily (46366,96736), cranberry syrup, or a combination beverage containing cranberry juice plus lingonberry juice (Maija) 50 mL daily (8253). However, other studies found no significant improvement when compared with placebo (17524,46471,90047), although some of these studies may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference (17524,46471). Cranberry products have also been compared with other treatments including antibiotics and probiotics for preventing recurrent UTI, but the results are unclear. A meta-analysis suggests that cranberry products reduce the risk of symptomatic UTIs compared to probiotics. The analysis also showed no difference in the risk of UTI between cranberry products and antibiotics, but the precision of included studies was poor (111407). In one study, taking cranberry extract capsules (Cran-Max; Proprietary Nutritionals, Inc) 500 mg daily for 6 months was as effective as trimethoprim 100 mg daily in elderly females with recurrent UTI (16720). However, taking this same cranberry product twice daily for 12 months was less effective than trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 480 mg once daily in younger premenopausal individuals (17176). Additional research in children with vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) shows that daily consumption of cranberry products results in UTI recurrence rates equivalent to those obtained with prophylactic antibiotics. Cranberry juice (Cranberry UR-50, Kikkoman Company) 100 mL daily was equally effective to cefaclor 5-10 mg/kg daily; cranberry syrup (Pharmatoka) 0.2 mL/kg daily was equally effective to trimethoprim 0.2 mL/kg daily (96737).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Age-related cognitive decline. It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for age-related cognitive decline. Oral cranberry may be beneficial for improving visual episodic memory in healthy, elderly adults, but its effects on other aspects of cognition are unclear. Details: A clinical study in healthy adults aged 50-80 years shows that taking a freeze-dried cranberry powder 4.5 grams twice daily (standardized to provide 281 mg proanthocyanidins daily), provided as a sachet and added to food or beverage for 12 weeks, improves visual episodic memory performance during a memory and recall test (Rey Complex Figure Test), but does not appear to affect other measures such as attention, orientation, fluency, language, processing speed, or short-term memory, when compared with placebo (108564). Cranberry supplementation also does not appear to affect grey matter structure; however, due to the low number of patients who completed a baseline and follow-up MRI, this study may not have been adequately powered to detect a difference between groups.
• Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Preliminary clinical research suggests that oral cranberry is beneficial for reducing BPH symptoms. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking powdered dried cranberry fruit 500 mg three times daily for 6 months improves lower urinary symptoms and reduces prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels when compared with no treatment in patients 45 years of age or older with elevated PSA levels, a negative prostate biopsy, and clinically confirmed non-bacterial prostatitis (17126). Another small study in those 45 years of age and older without elevated PSA levels shows that taking a specific dried cranberry powder (Flowens, Naturex-DBS, LLC) 250-500 mg daily for 6 months reduces lower urinary tract symptoms and improves voiding and storage symptoms when compared with placebo (96738).
• Cancer. Although there has been interest in using oral cranberry for cancer, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of cranberry for this condition.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although some research suggests that oral cranberry may modestly improve some CVD risk factors, it is unclear if it is beneficial for CVD prevention. Details: A meta-analysis of 10 clinical studies shows that cranberry juice or cranberry extract seems to reduce systolic blood pressure by 3.6 mmHg and body mass index by 0.3 kg/m2 when compared with placebo. However, these improvements are unlikely to be clinically significant, and cranberry does not appear to improve diastolic blood pressure, lipid levels, glycemic control, or waist circumference (102849). The generalizability of these results is limited, as the study populations ranged from healthy adults to those with type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, or coronary heart disease. A clinical crossover study in patients who are overweight or obese and have elevated blood pressure shows that drinking cranberry juice 250 mL twice daily for 8 weeks reduces ambulatory diastolic blood pressure by 2 mmHg during daytime hours, but does not improve systolic blood pressure, glycemic control, or lipid levels, when compared with placebo (108059). The validity of these findings is limited due to short duration of treatment and broad heterogeneity of patient baseline characteristics.
• Catheter-related infections. Although there has been interest in using oral cranberry for catheter-related infections, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of cranberry for this condition.
• Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Although there has been interest in using oral cranberry for CFS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of cranberry for this condition.
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for diabetes. Details: A small clinical trial shows that taking cranberry supplements orally does not improve fasting serum glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C), fructosamine, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in patients with type 2 diabetes (11328).
• Helicobacter pylori. There is conflicting evidence regarding the use of oral cranberry for Helicobacter pylori eradication, either as a standalone treatment or in combination with standard triple therapy. Details: Two small clinical studies show that taking cranberry juice 480-500 mL, containing 88 mg proanthocyanidins (PACs), daily in two divided doses for 2-3 months can modestly increase the H. pylori eradication rate at 8 weeks, but not at 2 weeks, when compared with placebo. However, the eradication rate was only 20% or less, which is much lower than that obtained with conventional triple therapy (46388,104248). Lower doses, as either cranberry juice or cranberry powder, do not seem to improve H. pylori eradication rates. Cranberry juice containing only 23 mg or 44 mg PACs or cranberry powder containing 36 mg or 72 mg PACs did not demonstrate benefit when compared with placebo (104248). Cranberry juice has also been studied in combination with standard triple therapy. Preliminary clinical research shows that taking cranberry juice 250 mL daily for 3 weeks along with omeprazole, amoxicillin, and clarithromycin for one week does not increase the eradication rate when compared with triple therapy plus placebo. However, the combination treatment increased the rate of H. pylori eradication when only females were considered (46439). A meta-analysis of 4 small clinical studies, including three studies already discussed, shows that taking cranberry, either as a juice or a dried powder, does not improve H. pylori eradication rate when compared with placebo, regardless of treatment duration (108060). The validity of these findings is limited by the high heterogeneity of the included studies and incomplete reporting. In asymptomatic children aged 6-16 years old with H. pylori, one clinical study shows that drinking cranberry juice 200 mL, with live or heat-killed Lactobacillus johnsonii 80 mL, daily for 3 weeks eradicates H. pylori in 15% to 22% of patients, compared with 1.5% of those receiving placebo. However, these rates are lower than those typically obtained with conventional triple therapy (46441).
• Hyperlipidemia. Oral cranberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Drinking a combination of cranberry, blueberry, apple, and chokeberry juice 300 mL daily for 6 weeks appears to decrease total cholesterol and increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol when compared to baseline in females with overweight or obesity and at least one risk factor for cardiovascular disease (111233). However, the validity of the study is limited by its small size, short duration, and lack of a comparator group. It is unclear if these effects are due to cranberry, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for reducing the risk of kidney stones. Details: Although some preliminary clinical research shows that drinking cranberry juice 500 mL diluted in 1500 mL water daily for 2 weeks can decrease urinary excretion of oxalate in healthy males, which suggests a decreased risk of kidney stone formation (46371), other preliminary clinical research shows that both cranberry juice and concentrated cranberry extracts can increase urinary oxalate levels, suggesting an increased risk of stone formation (7074,46393).
• Memory. It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for memory. Details: Preliminary clinical research in cognitively intact older adults shows that taking cranberry juice 16 ounces twice daily for 6 weeks does not improve memory when compared with placebo (46390).
• Metabolic syndrome. It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for metabolic syndrome. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that drinking cranberry juice 240 mL twice daily for 8 weeks can increase plasma antioxidant capacity when compared with placebo in adults with metabolic syndrome. However, cranberry juice does not appear to affect blood pressure, blood glucose, serum lipids, or markers of inflammation when compared with placebo in these patients (46467).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for NAFLD. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with NAFLD shows that adding cranberry extract 288 mg daily to a weight loss diet for 12 weeks does not appear to affect body weight, liver enzymes, lipid levels, or steatosis grade when compared with placebo. Cranberry extract may moderately reduce insulin levels and insulin resistance (104249). However, the clinical impact of these reductions is unclear. Another clinical trial in adults with NAFLD shows that taking dried cranberry powder 144 mg daily after lunch for 6 months improves steatosis grade as measured by ultrasound, insulin sensitivity, and levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides, but does not affect liver enzyme levels, when compared with placebo. All patients also consumed a reduced-calorie diet and an undefined dose of supplemental vitamin E (108058).
• Obesity. Oral cranberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in females with overweight or obesity and at least one risk factor for cardiovascular disease shows that drinking a combination of cranberry, blueberry, apple, and chokeberry juice 300 mL daily for 6 weeks does not reduce body weight, body mass index (BMI), or blood pressure but might improve total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol when compared to baseline (111233). However, the validity of these findings is limited by the small study size, short duration, and lack of a comparator group. It is unclear if these effects are due to cranberry, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Overactive bladder. It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for overactive bladder. Details: Preliminary clinical research in otherwise healthy females shows that taking dried cranberry powder 500 mg daily for 24 weeks can reduce daily micturition by 16% and urgency episodes by 57% when compared with placebo. Patients taking cranberry powder also reported an improvement in their own perception of their bladder condition when compared with placebo (104246). Limitations of this study include a short duration, lack of a run-in period, and high drop-out rate, which interfered with the ability to meet power.
• Periodontitis. Topical cranberry extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in adults with chronic periodontitis shows that applying a topical combination gel product containing cranberry extract 2.5 grams and garcinia extract after scaling and root planing reduces plaque index, gingival index, probing pocket depth, clinical attachment level, and salivary biomarkers of periodontal disease when compared with scaling and root planing alone and similarly to scaling and root planing with tetracycline fibers (112272). It is unclear if these effects are due to cranberry, garcinia, or the combination.
• Peristomal lesions. Although there has been interest in using oral cranberry for peristomal lesions, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of cranberry for this condition.
• Prostate cancer. It is unclear if cranberry is beneficial for preventing prostate cancer recurrence. Details: Clinical research shows that taking cranberry powder (Pacran, Naturex) 1500 mg for a mean of 30 days prior to radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer does not improve prostate tissue markers when compared with taking placebo. However, levels of prostate tissue antigen decreased by approximately 22% when compared with baseline (105127).
• Radiation-induced cystitis. Evidence for the use of cranberry juice in the prevention of radiation-induced cystitis is conflicting. Details:One small clinical study in individuals with prostate cancer shows that taking 200 mg of a cranberry extract standardized to 30% proanthocyanidins (Monoselect Macrocarpon; PharmExtracta) once daily during external beam radiotherapy for 6-7 weeks reduces the risk of lower UTI by 64% when compared with placebo (92579). However, other preliminary clinical research shows that taking cranberry capsules, standardized to contain a total of 72 mg proanthocyanidins, daily during radiation treatment for prostate cancer and for two weeks post-treatment, does not improve pain, burning, nocturia, or urinary flow symptoms from radiation-induced cystitis when compared with a beetroot placebo (104247). Additionally, preliminary clinical research in patients receiving radiotherapy for bladder or cervical cancer shows that consuming cranberry juice 250 mL daily for 2 weeks does not seem to reduce the incidence of UTIs (46469).
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial in RA. Details: A clinical study in adults with RA shows that drinking reduced-calorie cranberry juice 250 mL twice daily in addition to taking fish oil 1 gram three times daily for 90 days improves disease activity score (DAS28-CRP) when compared with no supplementation. However, this combination was similarly effective to patients taking fish oil alone, suggesting that any benefits may be due to fish oil, as opposed to cranberry juice (108057). In contrast, another small study in adults with RA shows that drinking reduced-calorie cranberry juice 500 mL daily for 90 days does not improve disease activity score or clinically relevant biologic markers of RA such as rheumatoid factor, anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, or C-reactive protein when compared with a control group (112273).
• Upper respiratory tract infection (URTI). It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for the prevention or treatment of URTIs. Details: Clinical research shows that drinking a cranberry juice beverage 450 mL daily for 70 days does not decrease the incidence of cold or flu, but may reduce cold and flu symptoms, when compared with placebo in healthy adults (90046).
• Urinary odor. It is unclear if oral cranberry is beneficial for urinary odor. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that cranberry juice cocktail might reduce urinary odors when given orally on a regular basis to patients with urinary incontinence (3333,3334,8254). Cranberry juice cocktail up to 237 mL three times daily for up to 4 weeks has been used (3334). More evidence is needed to rate cranberry for these uses.

(Read more about CRANBERRY)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI). Oral grape leaf extract might improve CVI symptoms. It is unknown if other grape products are beneficial for CVI. Details: Some clinical trials in patients with CVI show that taking a specific grape leaf extract, known as red vine leaf extract (AS 195, Antistax, Boehringer Ingelheim), seems to improve leg edema after 6 weeks of treatment when compared with placebo. Doses of 360 mg and 720 mg daily were both effective, but the higher dose produced a slightly greater effect. Patients also reported decreases in subjective complaints such as tired or heavy legs, tension, and tingling and pain after 2-12 weeks of treatment (2538,52985,53005,53206).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). Oral grape seed extract does not seem to improve hay fever symptoms. Details: A clinical study in patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis shows that taking grape seed extract 100 mg twice daily for 8 weeks before ragweed pollen season does not seem to decrease seasonal allergic rhinitis symptoms or antihistamine usage when compared with placebo (9182).
• Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV). Drinking grape juice does not seem to improve CINV. Details: Clinical research shows that taking 4 ounces of chilled Concord grape juice 30 minutes prior to meals for a week following each of four cycles of chemotherapy does not seem to reduce CINV when compared with placebo (53175).
• Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). Drinking grape juice does not seem to improve LUTS. Details: Clinical research in middle-aged and older men with LUTS shows that drinking 100% Concord grade juice 240 mL daily for 3 months does not improve symptoms when compared with placebo (96190).
• Mastalgia. Oral grape seed extract does not seem to improve mastalgia symptoms. Details: Clinical research in patients treated for early breast cancer using high-dose radiotherapy shows that taking the grape seed extract constituent proanthocyanidin 100 mg orally three times daily for 6 months does not reduce breast tissue hardness, pain, or tenderness when compared with placebo (53048).
• Obesity. Oral grape products do not seem to improve weight loss. Details: Clinical research in overweight or obese individuals shows that drinking Concord grape juice 480 mL daily for 12 weeks does not improve weight or body composition when compared to baseline (53181). Furthermore, taking grape pomace alone or in combination with schisandra fruit extract daily for 4-10 weeks does not improve body composition, abdominal fat, or body weight when compared with control (96200,99269,99270). Taking grape pomace 7-8 grams daily for 4-6 weeks seems to improve insulin resistance by about 33%, but does not affect blood lipids or blood pressure, when compared with placebo in overweight or obese adults with at least one metabolic syndrome factor (99269,99270).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Aging skin. Oral grape skin extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small study in adults with signs of aging skin shows that taking a specific combination product (Celergen, Laboratories-Dom) containing grape skin extract 10 mg, marine collagen peptides 570 mg, coenzyme Q10 10 mg, luteolin 10 mg, and selenium 0.05 mg, one capsule with breakfast and dinner for 2 months, might improve skin elasticity when compared with baseline. However, there was no effect on moisture or biological skin age (97930). It is not clear if these effects are due to grape skin extract, the other ingredients, or the combination.
• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Although there is interest in using oral grape seed for AMD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for this condition.
• Atherosclerosis. Oral grape seed extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in postmenopausal adults shows that taking a specific combination product (Karinat, INAT-Farma) containing grape seed extract constituent proanthocyanidin 40 mg, garlic 100 mg, hops 160 mg, green tea 115 mg, vitamin C 30 mg, silicon 8 mg, vitamin E 6.6 mg, and beta-carotene 0.5 mg three capsules daily for 12 months might slow the progression of atherosclerosis as measured by mean carotid intima thickness when compared with placebo. However, the combination product does not seem to affect the growth of existing plaques, and it does not seem to improve lipid parameters (97929). It is not clear if these effects are due to grape seed extract, the other ingredients, or the combination.
• Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral grape products are beneficial for athletic performance. Details: A small study in elite athletes shows that taking a specific grape extract (Powergrape, Naturex SA) 400 mg daily for one month can increase total power in a jumping task when compared with placebo, but has no effect on initial power and maintenance of power (53310). Another small study in recreationally active young adults shows that drinking juice prepared from 46 grams of a freeze-dried preparation of whole grapes daily for 6 weeks prior to a running exercise test does not improve maximal oxygen uptake or work capacity during exercise when compared with placebo (91540).
• Atopic dermatitis (eczema). Topical grape products have only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with atopic dermatitis shows that twice daily application with a cream containing grape polyphenols, vitamin E, and epigallocatechin gallate for 28 days does not improve symptoms or reduce the affected area based on physician assessment when compared with placebo (96196).
• Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although there is interest in using oral grape seed for ADHD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for this condition.
• Canker sores. Although there is interest in using oral grape seed for canker sores, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for this condition.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is unclear if oral grape products are beneficial for reducing CVD risk. Details: There is preliminary evidence that taking grape products, such as purple grape juice or red grape juice concentrate, might improve endothelium-dependent vasodilation, prevent low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation, reduce markers of inflammation, and suppress platelet-mediated thrombosis. Theoretically, chronic ingestion of these products might reduce the risk of CVD in various patient populations, including adults with type 2 diabetes or hypercholesterolemia, those undergoing hemodialysis, and children with metabolic syndrome (8745,8746,52954,53030,53062,53106,53155,53174). However, a large meta-analysis shows that although taking grape products, including grape extract, grape juice, raisins, and grape seed extract, reduces levels of blood fats by a small amount in a mixed population of adults, these effects were not present in a subgroup of patients with CVD when compared with placebo. There was a small benefit on total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (102610).
• Cognitive function. It is unclear if oral grape products improve cognitive function. Details: Clinical research in healthy adults aged 55-75 years with no cognitive decline shows that taking a specific grape fruit extract (Cognigrape, Bionap srl) 250 mg daily for 12 weeks improves cognitive functioning by 4.5%, and overall neuropsychological status, including attention, language, and recall, by 6%, compared with no change in the placebo group (96198). Also, a preliminary clinical study in middle-aged women under moderate stress shows that drinking Concord grape juice 355 mL daily for 12 weeks improves immediate spacial memory and may improve executive function and verbal recall when compared with placebo (96195).
• Cognitive impairment. Small clinical studies suggest that oral grape products may not slow cognitive decline in older patients with cognitive impairment. Details: One very small study in in patients with mild cognitive decline shows that taking a freeze-dried grape powder 36 grams twice daily for 6 months does not improve most measures of cognitive function and memory, including immediate memory, delayed memory, speed of information processing, cognitive ability, or language, when compared with placebo (96199). Another very small study in older adults with signs of memory decline shows that drinking 100% Concord grape juice 6-9 mL/kg daily for 12 weeks does not improve delayed verbal recall or spatial memory when compared with placebo, although it does seem to moderately improve verbal learning (53166).
• Colorectal cancer. Oral grape seed extract is has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in patients with colorectal cancer shows that taking a product containing grape seed extract, turmeric extract, fermented soybean extract, green tea extract, spirulina, and Taiwanofungus camphoratus, 1920 mg three times daily for 16 weeks during a chemotherapy regimen might modestly increase the effectiveness of treatment when compared with placebo. No patients in the treatment group experienced disease progression, compared with 15.8% (6 patients) of the placebo group. However, there was no significant effect on overall survival or the best response to treatment (96183).
• Constipation. Although there is interest in using oral grape products for constipation, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for this condition.
• Dental caries. Although there is interest in using topical grape seed for dental caries, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for this purpose.
• Diabetes. Oral grape extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A large clinical study of males with type 2 diabetes mellitus and erectile dysfunction suggests that an oral combination product containing alpha lipoic acid, Gingko biloba, and grape extract (Blunorm Forte, Uriach S.p.A.) taken for 3 months may decrease fasting plasma glucose and Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) score both alone and when combined with avanafil when compared with baseline and placebo (110707).
• Diabetic retinopathy. It is unclear if oral grape seed extract is beneficial in patients with diabetic retinopathy. Details: A preliminary clinical study in patients with non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy shows that taking a specific grape seed proanthocyanidin extract (Entelon, Hanlim Pharm) 50 mg three times daily for 12 months reduces the severity of hard exudates when compared with calcium dobesilate or placebo. Grape seed extract had a treatment success rate 3-fold and 5.5-fold higher than those of calcium dobesilate and placebo, respectively. Treatment success was defined as a 2-grade decrease in hard exudate severity. No significant improvements in retinopathy grade or visual acuity were reported (100954). However, the study may not have been adequately powered to detect a difference in these outcomes.
• Erectile Dysfunction (ED). Oral grape extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A large study of males with type 2 diabetes mellitus and erectile dysfunction suggests that a specific combination product containing alpha lipoic acid, grape extract, and gingko biloba (Blunorm Forte, Uriach S.p.A.) administered orally for three months with avanafil prior to sexual acts improves International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) scores when compared with either product alone, placebo, and baseline, and may reduce markers of ED including high sensitivity-c-reactive protein, nitrates/nitrites, and metalloproteinases-2 and -9. These results suggest that an oral combination nutraceutical consisting of alpha lipoic acid, grape extract, and gingko biloba (Blunorm Forte, Uriach S.p.A.) may react synergistically with avanafil to enhance sexual performance in males with type 2 diabetes and erectile dysfunction. It is unclear if this effect is due to the alpha lipoic acid, grape extract, or gingko biloba, but researchers theorize that it may be due to the inhibition of phosphodiesterase-5 enzymes by grape extract (110707).
• Hemorrhoids. Although there is interest in using oral grape seed for hemorrhoids, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for this purpose.
• Hypercholesterolemia. Small clinical studies suggest that oral grape products reduce cholesterol levels by a small amount. Details: A large meta-analysis of heterogeneous clinical trials shows that taking grape products, including grape extract, grape juice, raisins, or grape seed extract, for 2-54 weeks reduces levels of total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, as well as triglycerides, by a small amount when compared with placebo in a mixed population of adults. In a sub-group of patients with any hyperlipidemia, the mean decreases in LDL cholesterol and triglycerides were 11 mg/dL and 14 mg/dL, respectively. There was no effect on levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in the mixed population or in adults with hyperlipidemia (102610). Although some individual studies disagree, the most evidence for benefit is related to use of whole grape extract or grape seed extract. It is not clear if benefit is dependent on dose or duration of use. These results suggest a benefit of grape products in patients with hypercholesterolemia, but any benefit is likely to be small (42585,96816,102610).
• Hypertension. Some research suggests that oral grape products may modestly lower blood pressure; however, results are inconsistent. Details: Some clinical trials have shown modest benefit in patients with prehypertension, mild hypertension, or metabolic syndrome (18228,53149,96197), but conflicting results exists (91541,90079). A 2016 meta-analysis including 16 trials of 810 patients shows that when compared with placebo, grape seed extract or polyphenols reduces systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) by about 6 mmHg and 3 mmHg, respectively, with greatest improvements observed in those with obesity or metabolic syndrome. This meta-analysis suggests that a minimum treatment duration of 8 weeks may be necessary before benefit is seen (96194). However, other research in adults with hypertension shows that taking grape seed polyphenols 1000 mg daily for 6 weeks does not alter blood pressure. Also, when grape seed polyphenols were combined with vitamin C 500 mg daily, some patients experienced an increase in blood pressure and worsening of nighttime and daytime variation in blood pressure (13162,90079). The reason for these conflicting findings is unclear but may due to patient characteristics and comorbidities. A meta-analysis of clinical research in various patient populations shows that taking grape seed extract 150-2100 mg for 2-25 weeks improves DBP and heart rate when compared with control, but does not improve SBP or flow-mediated dilation, regardless of dose, duration, sex, BMI, or health status. Additionally, subgroup analyses suggest that blood pressure effects may be greater in patients who are otherwise healthy, female, overweight, and/or under 50 years of age. Also, the use of lower doses and longer treatment durations may be associated with greater benefit (108090). The validity of these findings is limited by the high heterogeneity of included studies. A clinical study in adults with mildly elevated blood pressure shows that a specific grape seed extract (Enovita; Indena SpA) standardized to provide at least 95% oligomeric proanthocyanins, taken as 150 mg twice daily for 16 weeks, does not reduce SBP or DBP when compared with placebo. However, a subgroup analysis suggests that taking grape seed extract improves blood pressure in males, but not in females, when compared with placebo (108091). Some research has also evaluated the effects of grape juice on blood pressure. Two clinical studies in patients with hypertension show that drinking grape juice can reduce blood pressure when compared to baseline; however, another study shows that drinking grape juice does not reduce blood pressure when compared with placebo in these patients (53018,53156,53199).
• Melasma. It is unclear if oral grape seed extract is beneficial in patients with melasma. Details: A very small clinical study in Japanese females with melasma shows that taking grape seed extract (Gravinol, Kikkoman Co) containing 54 mg of proanthocyanidins three times daily for 6-11 months reduces skin hyperpigmentation when compared to pretreatment (53016). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a control group.
• Menopausal symptoms. It is unclear if oral grape seed extract is beneficial in patients with menopausal symptoms. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with at least one menopausal symptom shows that taking grape seed extract (Gravinol, Kikkoman Biochemifa Co) containing proanthocyanidin 200 mg daily for 8 weeks reduces anxiety when compared with placebo. It also reduces hot flashes and other physical symptoms when compared to baseline, but not when compared with placebo. A lower dose of proanthocyanidin 100 mg daily does not appear to improve these outcomes. Neither doses improved insomnia or depression (91542).
• Metabolic syndrome. Small studies suggest that various oral grape products might improve lipid levels and blood pressure in patients with metabolic syndrome. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical studies in adults with type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome shows that taking grape products, usually grape seed or grape extract, for 4-48 weeks reduces levels of total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, as well as triglycerides, by a small amount when compared with placebo. The mean decreases in LDL cholesterol and triglycerides were 2.6 mg/dL and 11 mg/dL, respectively (102610). These findings are limited by significant heterogeneity of the included research. Also, a small clinical study in overweight or obese adults, most with metabolic syndrome, shows that taking grape pomace 8 grams daily for 6 weeks improves insulin resistance by about 33%, but does not affect blood lipids, blood pressure, or fasting glucose, when compared with placebo (99270). Some grape products have also shown benefit for improving blood pressure in patients with metabolic syndrome. One small clinical crossover study in males with metabolic syndrome shows that taking 46 grams daily of a freeze-dried, dehydrated preparation of grape polyphenols (equivalent to about 250 grams of fresh grapes daily) for 30 days seems to modestly lower systolic, but not diastolic, blood pressure, and increase brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD) when compared with placebo (18228). Also, a small clinical study in adolescents with metabolic syndrome suggests that drinking natural grape juice 18 mL/kg daily for one month improves FMD when compared with baseline (53174).The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a control group. A very small clinical study in patients with metabolic syndrome shows that taking a specific grape seed extract (Meganatural BP, Polyphenolics) 150-300 mg daily for 4 weeks modestly reduces blood pressure when compared with placebo (53149). The validity of this finding is limited due to small study size and because patients in the treatment groups had higher blood pressure at baseline.
• Minor bleeding. Topical grape vine has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that topically applying 4 mL of a specific product (Ankaferd blood stopper) containing grape vine, alpinia, licorice, thyme, and stinging nettle reduces bleeding, but does not improve the surgical time for episiotomy repair, when compared with saline (31010). It is unclear if this effect is due to grape vine, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Muscle soreness. It is unclear if oral grape products improve muscle soreness. Details: One small study in active young adults shows that drinking juice, prepared from 46 grams of freeze-dried whole grapes, daily for 6 weeks prior to an eccentric arm exercise test does not reduce muscle inflammation or pain at 24 or 48 hours post-exercise when compared with placebo (91540).
• Night vision. Although there is interest in using oral grape seed extract for improving night vision, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for purpose.
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral grape seed extract reverses fatty liver in patients with NAFLD. Details: One small clinical study in adults with NAFLD shows that taking grape seed extract 1000 mg twice daily for 3 months improves some, but not all, markers of liver damage and improves the grade of fatty liver change when compared with vitamin C supplementation (53190).
• Ocular stress. Although there is interest in using oral grape seed extract for ocular stress, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for this purpose.
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Although there is interest in using oral grape seed extract for PMS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of grape for this condition.
• Wound healing. Limited research suggests that topical grape seed extract might improve wound healing. Details: A small clinical study in adults undergoing surgical removal of minor skin lesions shows that applying red grape seed extract 2% cream twice daily to the affected areas reduces the time to complete wound healing by about 6 days when compared with a placebo cream (91539). Also, preliminary clinical research in patients recovering from cesarean section shows that applying grape seed extract 5% ointment twice daily to cesarean section wounds for 14 days improves wound healing, as measured by a scoring system assessing redness, edema, ecchymosis, discharge, and wound closure, when compared with a placebo ointment. A 2.5% ointment did not improve wound healing measures when compared with placebo (100955). More evidence is needed to rate grape for these uses.

(Read more about GRAPE)

EFFECTIVE

• Anemia of chronic disease. Oral and intravenous iron in combination with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) are effective for treating anemia of chronic disease. Details: Iron supplementation with ESAs is effective for treating anemia associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD) or chemotherapy. During therapy with ESAs, iron levels should be monitored and supplementation provided as needed to ensure that the response is not limited by lack of iron for erythropoiesis (1087,1091,20110,20111,110192). Research shows that intravenous iron appears to be more effective than oral supplements for this purpose (20112,20113). In patients with CKD, intravenous iron at total doses from 2232 mg over 6 months to 1020 mg over one week increases hemoglobin levels more than oral doses of 4-6 mg/kg daily or 325 mg daily for up to 6 months (20112). Some research has evaluated the effect of intravenous or oral iron in patients not treated with ESAs. In patients with cancer or CKD, oral iron supplements have been shown to improve iron status (110184,110192). However, overall benefits of iron alone remain unclear in treated or untreated patients with cancer and more research is needed to rule out an increase in mortality and to determine any effect on blood transfusion requirements (110192). Preliminary clinical research shows that children aged 6 months to 10 years with HIV and anemia who take elemental iron 3 mg/kg daily along with a multivitamin for 3 months have a 41% lower chance of having persistent anemia at 3 months when compared with multivitamins alone (95432).
• Iron deficiency anemia. Oral and intravenous iron are effective for treating or preventing iron deficiency anemia. The benefits of iron supplementation in people with iron deficiency without anemia are unclear. Details: Oral iron supplements, mainly as ferrous sulfate, are effective for treating and preventing iron deficiency anemia in adults, children, and infants (1089,7135,17495,17496,17497,103806,20114,20115,91183,96621)(104680,104681,112601). Other forms are also effective, including sodium iron ethylenediaminetetra-acetate (NaFeEDTA), iron(III)-hydroxide polymaltose complex (IPC), iron protein succinylate, iron bisglycinate, and lactoferrin with iron (20117,20118,110189). Treatment with iron supplements should increase hemoglobin levels by 1 gram/dL every 2-3 weeks. However, even after hemoglobin has normalized, it may take up to 4 months for iron stores to be replenished (17497). Historically, treatment of iron deficiency anemia with oral iron supplements has typically consisted of a daily dosing regimen, often taken in divided doses to reduce adverse effects. In more recent years, however, intermittent iron supplementation (1-3 doses/week) has become preferred for some patients, particularly those with mild anemia, due to better absorption and a possible reduction in side effects compared to daily dosing. One small clinical study shows that taking ferrous sulfate 60 mg on alternate days in single doses improves iron absorption when compared to once daily dosing (96630). Another small clinical study in females with iron-deficiency anemia shows that fractional iron absorption is 40% to 50% higher with alternate-day dosing compared with daily dosing. Furthermore, total iron absorption was shown to be similar for alternate day dosing of elemental iron 200 mg compared with daily dosing of 100 mg, but the incidence of gastrointestinal adverse effects may be lower for the alternate day dosing regimen (101514). A meta-analysis of 25 clinical trials, including 10,996 menstruating females with or without pre-existing iron deficiency and/or anemia, shows that intermittent iron reduces the risk of anemia and increases hemoglobin and serum ferritin when compared with placebo or no intervention. This meta-analysis did not identify differences in the risk of anemia, hemoglobin, or serum ferritin between intermittent and daily iron supplementation. However, it did show that females receiving intermittent dosing had a 59% reduction in the risk for adverse effects. The validity of these findings is limited by significant heterogeneity in the enrolled populations and selected dosing strategies, including frequency of intermittent dosing, total weekly dose, and duration of follow-up. In addition, the subgroup analyses performed by baseline anemia, hemoglobin, and serum ferritin, as well as duration of follow-up, showed differing overall conclusions when comparing intermittent and daily iron supplementation. While intermittent dosing appears to be beneficial when compared with daily dosing for some patients with iron deficiency anemia, intermittent dosing may be less effective than daily iron supplementation in some patients (103806). For patients with severe anemia, twice daily dosing may be preferred to alternate day dosing due to faster response. A small clinical study in patients with iron deficiency anemia shows that taking ferrous sulfate 200 mg twice daily is more effective at increasing hemoglobin levels by 3 weeks when compared with ferrous sulfate 400 mg taken on alternate days in single doses (102864). Intermittent iron supplementation has also been investigated in children. A meta-analysis of clinical research in children and adolescents with or without pre-existing iron deficiency and/or anemia shows that taking iron supplements 1-2 times weekly is similarly effective as 3-7 times weekly for decreasing iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia. However, ferritin and hemoglobin levels increased to a greater extent with 3-7 times weekly supplementation (112601). Blood transfusion may be required for some patients with severe iron deficiency anemia who have symptoms such as dyspnea and fatigue (17497). Intravenous iron should be considered in patients who cannot tolerate oral iron or in patients with chronic bleeding or intestinal malabsorption (17497). Guidelines from the British Society of Gastroenterology recommend treatment with iron while awaiting investigations to rule out gastrointestinal issues in adults in the absence of an alternative explanation. The guidelines recommend ferrous sulfate, fumarate, or gluconate as one tablet daily. If adverse effects occur, intake can be reduced to once every other day, or alternative oral or parenteral sources of iron can be used. Parenteral sources should be used if oral sources are contraindicated or ineffective. Treatment should be monitored and continued after hemoglobin levels are normalized (110193). Iron supplementation may also be beneficial in patients with iron deficiency without anemia, which can cause fatigue and reduced well-being, although guidelines are lacking. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in adults with iron deficiency but not anemia shows that supplemental iron improves iron stores and hemoglobin levels. In addition, iron moderately reduces self-reported fatigue, but not physical capacity, when compared with placebo. Oral ferrous sulfate was used in most studies included in the analysis; however, intravenous or intramuscular iron were also used (104684).
• Pregnancy-related iron deficiency. Oral iron is effective for preventing pregnancy-related iron deficiency. Details: Clinical research shows that taking iron orally at an average daily dose of 20-225 mg of elemental iron increases maternal hemoglobin levels by up to 1 gram/dL when compared with placebo and reduces the risk of maternal anemia by 62% to 100% (20122,20123,20124,110180,110188). Some clinicians may recommend alternating days of iron administration to reduce gastrointestinal adverse effects. A pooled analysis shows that taking iron supplements on alternating days during pregnancy maintains adequate iron intake and reduces gastrointestinal adverse effects when compared with taking iron daily (96625). Various forms of oral iron seem to be equally effective for raising hemoglobin levels (110185,110188). However, in patients with anemia during pregnancy, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that intravenous iron sucrose and ferric carboxymaltose were more effective than oral ferrous sulfate for improving hemoglobin levels (110185).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Breath-holding attacks. Oral iron seems to be effective for reducing the frequency of breath-holding attacks in children with iron deficiency. Details: The incidence of breath-holding attacks is increased in children with iron deficiency or iron deficiency anemia. Most research shows that oral supplementation with ferrous sulfate 3-6 mg/kg daily for 4-16 weeks reduces the frequency of breath-holding attacks in children aged 1-72 months (20128,104682,104683). The best evidence comes from a meta-analysis of one randomized controlled trial and 11 observational single arm studies (104682). In this analysis, approximately 84% of children experienced at least a 50% decreased frequency of breath-holding attacks (104682). Some preliminary clinical research also shows that administering intramuscular iron reduces the frequency of breath-holding attacks and increases remission in children with iron deficiency anemia (20128).
• Cognitive function. Oral iron seems to be effective for improving cognitive function in children and adolescents with iron deficiency. Details: Taking iron orally seems to improve cognitive function in iron-deficient children and adolescents (20121,112600). For example, ferrous sulfate 650 mg twice daily for 8 weeks improved verbal learning and memory in non-anemic iron-deficient adolescent females (1095). Ferrous sulfate 50 mg twice weekly for 16 weeks appeared to improve attention measures in adolescent females with possible anemia (91186). Iron also appears to reverse developmental and learning deficits caused by iron-deficiency in anemic infants (1104). Some clinical research is focused on children and adolescents from low- and middle-income countries. In children aged 5-19 years with or without iron-deficiency anemia, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that iron supplementation for 3-8 months dose-dependently improves measured intelligence by a modest amount. However, there was no effect on other measures of cognition, including attention or memory (110181). Another meta-analysis of clinical research in school age children shows that taking iron for 2-12 months modestly improves intelligence, attention, and memory, but not educational achievement, when compared with placebo or no intervention. However, sub-analyses show that any benefits are limited to children with anemia (112600).
• Heart failure. Intravenous iron seems to be effective for improving recovery in patients with heart failure and iron deficiency. It is unclear if oral iron is effective. Details: Iron deficiency is common in patients with heart failure (17499,112597,112598,112599). Individual clinical trials and meta-analyses of clinical research in patients with heart failure show that administering intravenous iron, as ferric carboxymaltose, iron dextran, iron isomaltoside, or iron sucrose, for at least 12 weeks modestly improves quality of life, increases exercise capacity, and reduces hospitalizations when compared with placebo or standard care. However, there was no effect on all-cause mortality or cardiovascular mortality (17498,91179,110176,110187,112597,112598,112599). Some individual clinical trials have used intravenous ferric carboxymaltose 200 mg or iron sucrose 200 mg in patients with mild or moderate heart failure and iron deficiency (17498,91179). Guidelines from the British Society of Gastroenterology suggest that treatment with parenteral iron improves symptoms and quality of life in patients with functional iron deficiency related to CHF (110193). Limited research has investigated the effect of oral iron in this population. A small meta-analysis of clinical research shows with low certainty that taking iron orally has beneficial effects on serum ferritin and left ventricular ejection fraction (110178). Most research shows that taking oral iron does not improve hemoglobin levels, quality of life, or exercise capacity when compared with placebo (100970,110178). However, one small clinical trial shows that taking oral iron modestly improves iron status and overall symptoms and increases the 6-minute walking distance by about 46 meters, compared with a reduction of only 14 meters in those taking placebo (110183). Some doses used in individual clinical studies have included iron polysaccharide 150 mg twice daily for 16 weeks and ferrous sulfate 200 mg three times daily for 12 weeks (100970,110183).
• Restless legs syndrome (RLS). Oral and intravenous iron seem to be beneficial for RLS. The American Academy of Neurology recommends a combination of oral ferrous sulfate and vitamin C or intravenous ferric carboxymaltose for patients with RLS. Details: RLS is commonly associated with iron deficiency anemia. Some clinical research shows that taking iron in the form of ferrous sulfate 325 mg twice daily for 12 weeks reduces RLS symptoms comparably to pramipexole. Symptoms such as leg discomfort, need to move, and sleep disturbances improved considerably in about half of the patients taking either treatment (91181). Additional clinical research shows that taking ferrous sulfate 325 mg twice daily along with vitamin C 100 mg twice daily for 12 weeks reduces symptoms of RLS when compared with vitamin C alone in patients with RLS and low-normal serum ferritin levels (94189). Based on these results, clinical practice guidelines by the American Academy of Neurology report that taking this combination of oral ferrous sulfate and vitamin C is likely to improve symptoms in patients with RLS and low-normal serum ferritin (93587). Intravenous iron may also reduce symptoms of RLS. Clinical practice guidelines by the American Academy of Neurology report that two doses of intravenous ferric carboxymaltose 500 mg given 5 days apart are likely to improve symptoms and quality of life within 28 days in patients with moderate to severe RLS, regardless of serum ferritin levels. Intravenous iron sucrose has also been evaluated in patients with RLS, but there is currently insufficient available evidence to support or refute the use of this form of iron for treating RLS (93587).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Athletic performance. Oral iron does not seem to improve athletic performance. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in adults of childbearing age shows that iron supplementation improves some exercise performance measures, such as maximal oxygen uptake capacity, but not others, such as time until exhaustion and energy consumption, when compared with control (91184). Another meta-analysis of clinical research in patients with iron deficiency without anemia shows that iron supplementation improves subjective measures of fatigue, but does not improve exercise time to exhaustion or other measures of physical capacity (104684). A small clinical study in healthy children shows that taking iron supplements or consuming food providing iron 30-200 mg daily for 1-2 months improves running performance when compared with placebo. This was demonstrated by reductions of heart rate of 6.6 to 8 beats per minute during the running exercise. One preliminary study included in this analysis also showed that iron supplementation improved treadmill endurance time (20140).
• Child growth. Oral iron does not seem to be beneficial for child growth. Details: Meta-analyses of mainly preliminary clinical research show that oral iron supplementation, at doses averaging 2-80 mg or 1-10 mg/kg elemental iron daily for up to 52 weeks, does not increase growth rate in children (20131,20132,20133,95434).
• Preterm labor. Oral iron does not seem to prevent preterm labor and may actually increase the risk in malaria-endemic regions. Details: A meta-analysis of results from five clinical studies shows that maternal intake of iron as ferrous sulfate 20-60 mg daily for 14-26 weeks starting in the second trimester of pregnancy does not affect the length of gestation or increase birthweight of the infant (95434). In females from a malaria-endemic area who have never been pregnant before, another clinical study shows that taking ferrous gluconate 60 mg and folic acid 2.8 mg weekly, starting before conception and continuing to the first antenatal visit, may more than double the risk of preterm birth, defined as a delivery under 37 weeks gestation, when compared with folic acid alone (100969). Some research suggests that the adverse outcome in this latter study may be explained by a rise in hepcidin levels in pregnant patients with malaria. Hepcidin is a hormone that regulates iron absorption and distribution, and malaria can upregulate hepcidin. High levels of hepcidin can decrease iron absorption, stimulate inflammatory processes, and cause progesterone withdrawal, leading to preterm labor (102863).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• ACE inhibitor-induced cough. It is unclear if oral iron is beneficial in patients with this condition. Details: A small clinical trial shows that taking ferrous sulfate 256 mg daily reduces or eliminates cough induced by ACE inhibitors such as captopril (Capoten), enalapril (Vasotec), lisinopril (Prinivil, Zestril), and others, when compared with placebo (7307).
• Androgenic alopecia. Oral iron has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients, its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A moderate-sized clinical study in adults with androgenic alopecia or telogen effluvium shows that taking one tablet daily of a specific product (GFM Oral, Cantabria Labs), providing an unknown dose of iron in combination with selenium, taurine, cysteine, methionine, and hydrolyzed collagen, along with conventional therapy, consisting primarily of finasteride or minoxidil, for 12 weeks improves hair loss when compared with conventional therapy alone (111636). It is unclear if this effect is due to iron, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It is unclear if oral iron is beneficial in children with ADHD. Details: Three small clinical studies in children with ADHD and iron deficiency shows that taking oral iron improves some measures of ADHD after 1-3 months of treatment when compared with baseline or placebo. These studies used ferrous sulfate 5 mg/kg daily, ferrous sulfate 80 mg daily, ferrous fumarate 200 mg daily for children weighing up to 30 kg, or ferrous fumarate 400 mg daily for children weighing more than 30 kg (1093,16013,110191).
• Child development. It is unclear if oral iron is beneficial for improving development in non-anemic children. Details: Some observational research has found that iron deficiency in infancy is associated with poor verbal performance and social skills in childhood (102862). It is unknown whether iron supplementation can ameliorate these developmental issues. In non-anemic infants and children, preliminary clinical research shows that iron does not improve cognitive performance; the evidence for the benefits of iron on psychomotor development is conflicting (20129,20130,91315,96616,96626).
• Esophageal cancer. It is unclear if oral iron is beneficial for esophageal cancer prevention. Details: Population research has found that taking iron supplements is associated with a 32% lower risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma when compared to never taking iron supplements. However, use of iron supplements is not associated with a lower risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (95435).
• Fatigue. It is unclear if oral iron is beneficial in patients with fatigue due to iron deficiency without anemia. Details: A meta-analysis of mainly preliminary clinical research in adults with iron deficiency without anemia shows that iron reduces self-reported fatigue moderately more than placebo (104684). A specific ferrous sulfate supplement (Tardyferon; Pierre Fabre Médicament) providing 80 mg of elemental iron daily for 4-12 weeks was used in two studies included in this analysis (11406,91188).
• Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In patients with active IBD, intravenous iron may be more beneficial than oral iron due to impaired absorption. However, it may also increase the risk of infection in these patients. Details: Since the absorption of oral iron may be impaired in patients with active symptoms of IBD, guidelines from the British Society of Gastroenterology suggest that treatment with parenteral iron may be needed in patients with IBD who have moderate to severe iron-deficiency anemia (110193). However, a meta-analysis of clinical research in this population shows that administering IV iron, usually as iron sucrose or ferric carboxymaltose, increases the risk of infection by 73% when compared with oral iron or no iron (110186).
• Postoperative recovery. It is unclear if intravenous iron is beneficial for recovery following cardiac surgery. Details: A meta-analysis of low- to moderate-quality clinical research in patients with preoperative iron-deficiency anemia shows that treatment with intravenous iron before cardiac surgery does not improve the rate of transfusions or the length of stay in the intensive care unit or hospital when compared with control groups, including placebo, oral iron, or no treatment. Also, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that intravenous iron does not reduce postoperative mortality rates (110182).
• Postpartum depression. Although there has been interest in using iron for postpartum depression, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of iron for this condition.
• Prematurity. Enteral iron seems to be beneficial for some measures of development in preterm infants. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in preterm or low birthweight infants fed human milk shows that enteral iron supplementation increases linear growth and reduces the risk of anemia when compared with control groups receiving no iron supplementation. However, there was no effect on serum ferritin, weight, head circumference, cognitive development, risk of infection, or risk of necrotising enterocolitis (110177). Additional clinical research in infants born at 24-28 weeks' gestation shows that a higher average enteral iron dose by 60 days of age is positively associated with cognitive performance at 2 years of corrected age. However, this association was not present for iron doses received at 90 days of age (110190). More evidence is needed to rate iron for these uses.

(Read more about IRON)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Bladder cancer. It is unclear if consuming kale in the diet can reduce the risk of bladder cancer. Details: Population research suggests that patients with bladder cancer consumed approximately 0.18 fewer cups of cruciferous vegetables, such as cabbage, Brussels sprout, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, or collards, on a weekly basis in the year prior to diagnosis when compared with people without bladder cancer. The effects of kale, specifically, are unclear (14864). Other population research suggests that eating at least five servings per week of cruciferous vegetables, such as cauliflower, Brussels sprout, cabbage, broccoli, and kale, is associated with a 51% reduction in the risk of developing bladder cancer in males when compared with eating up to one serving per week. However, higher intake of kale alone does not seem to be associated with a reduced risk of bladder cancer (26184).
• Breast cancer. It is unclear if consuming kale in the diet can reduce the risk of breast cancer. Details: Population research suggests that the highest dietary intake of cruciferous vegetables, including broccoli, Brussels sprout, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, and kale, is associated with a slight increase in the risk of breast cancer in premenopausal adults when compared with the lowest intake (26188). Cruciferous vegetables might increase urinary levels of 2-hydroxyestrone, and its ratio to 16-alpha-hydroxyestrone, which could reduce the risk of breast cancer. However, research in pre-menopausal adults shows that taking a dried kale and Brussels sprout supplement, 3.3 grams daily for 8 weeks, or increasing dietary intake of Brussels sprout or broccoli by one 40-gram serving daily, does not increase urinary levels of 2-hydroxyestrone, or its ratio to 16-alpha-hydroxyestrone, when compared with placebo (112086). In postmenopausal adults, the highest intake of cruciferous vegetables appears to be associated with a statistically insignificant reduced risk of breast cancer (26188).
• Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Although there is interest in oral kale for IBD, there is insufficient reliable information available about the use of kale for this purpose.
• Menopausal symptoms. Although there is interest in oral kale for reducing menopausal symptoms, there is insufficient reliable information available about the use of kale for this purpose. More evidence is needed to rate kale for these uses.

(Read more about KALE)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Celiac disease. Although there has been interest in using oral lipase for celiac disease, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of lipase for this purpose.
• Dyspepsia. It is unclear if oral lipase is beneficial for improving symptoms of postprandial distress syndrome. Details: A small clinical trial shows that taking a specific acid-resistant lipase (Amano Enzyme USA) 280 mg immediately before a high-fat meal does not reduce postprandial bloating and nausea when compared with placebo in individuals with postprandial distress syndrome (101900).
• Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Although there has been interest in using oral lipase for IBD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of lipase for this purpose.
• Prematurity. It is unclear if adding a specific form of lipase, recombinant human bile salt-stimulated lipase (rhBSSL), to infant formula improves outcomes in premature infants. Some research suggests a potential increased risk for adverse effects. Details: Human breast milk contains rhBSSL, but it is inactivated when breast milk is pasteurized for donation. Clinical research in infants born before 32 weeks' gestation shows that adding rhBSSL as 8700 units per 100 mL formula or pasteurized breast milk, for 4 weeks does not increase growth velocity, body length, or head circumference over the next 12 months when compared with formula or pasteurized breast milk devoid of lipase. However, the infants who were small for gestational age (SGA), which made up approximately 15% of the study population, grew by an additional 1.9 grams/kg daily on average when compared with placebo (101940). More evidence is needed to rate lipase for these uses.

(Read more about LIPASE)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Abortion. Although there has been interest in using oral parsley to induce abortion, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Constipation. Although there has been interest in using oral parsley for constipation, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Diabetes. Although there has been interest in using oral parsley for diabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Dry skin. Although there has been interest in using topical parsley for dry skin, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Dyspepsia. Although there has been interest in using oral parsley for dyspepsia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Hypertension. Although there has been interest in using oral parsley for hypertension, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Insect bite. Although there has been interest in using topical parsley for insect bites, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). Although there has been interest in using oral parsley for kidney stones, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Melasma. It is unclear if topical parsley is beneficial for melasma. Details: A small clinical study in adults with melasma shows that applying a brewed parsley water to the face with a cotton ball on 6 days of each week for 8 weeks is as effective as hydroquinone 4% cream for improving dark spots (96828).
• Nonmelanoma skin cancer. Although there has been interest in using topical parsley to prevent nonmelanoma skin cancer, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Osteoarthritis. Although there has been interest in using oral parsley for osteoarthritis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose.
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Although there has been interest in using oral parsley for UTIs, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of parsley for this purpose. More evidence is needed to rate parsley for these uses.

(Read more about PARSLEY)

EFFECTIVE

• Hypokalemia. Oral or intravenous potassium can treat and prevent hypokalemia. Details: Administering potassium orally or intravenously is effective for treating and preventing hypokalemia (15,107970). Oral potassium 20 mEq (780 mg of elemental potassium) is typically taken once daily to prevent hypokalemia (15,95010). Oral potassium 40-100 mEq (1560-3900 mg of elemental potassium) is typically taken in 2-5 divided doses daily to treat hypokalemia (95010). Doses should be limited to 40 mEq (1560 mg of elemental potassium), and the total dose should not exceed 200 mEq (7800 mg of elemental potassium) in 24 hours (95010). Potassium supplementation and route of administration should be individualized based on serum potassium level and patient status (15,107970).

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Hypertension. Oral potassium, via dietary intake or supplementation, reduces blood pressure. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary potassium consumption is associated with a lower risk of developing hypertension (1310,8817,69512). Additionally, most clinical research shows that potassium, taken orally as part of the diet or as a supplement, reduces systolic blood pressure by about 3-9.5 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure by about 2-6.4 mmHg in patients with or without hypertension (3385,92104,92106,95624,107974). In most of these studies, daily intake of potassium typically ranged from about 1500-7800 mg, with the most common intake being about 2340-2540 mg daily (92104,95624). However, some research shows that taking potassium does not lower systolic or diastolic blood pressure (69541,69550,107966). Differences in the patient populations, potassium intake, and salt intake could have contributed to the conflicting results. Potassium seems to be more effective for people with hypertension, low potassium levels, high daily sodium intake, and for Black adults (3384,3385,3386,92104,92106). Some research also shows that the greatest blood pressure-lowering effects of potassium occur at doses of about 3900-7800 mg daily (95624). A meta-analysis of clinical trials using a novel computational technique to assess both potassium intake and excretion suggests that the optimal blood pressure reduction occurs when taking about 1500 mg supplemental potassium daily or an overall intake of 4500-6500 mg potassium daily (105448). This analysis is limited by the heterogeneity and short duration of the included trials. There is also interest in utilizing low-sodium, high-potassium food substitutes to treat hypertension. Research shows that using salt substitutes containing 25% to 30% potassium chloride reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure by 3-4.6 mmHg and 1 mmHg, respectively, when compared with regular table salt (107971,107976). In 2017, the American College of Cardiology and the American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) published guidelines recommending that patients with hypertension consume 3500-5000 mg of potassium daily (95680). This intake of potassium is expected to lower systolic blood pressure by about 4-5 mmHg in patients with hypertension and by about 2 mmHg in normotensive patients (3385). Although potassium supplements and dietary potassium both seem to be beneficial, the guidelines recommend getting potassium from dietary sources, since potassium-rich diets are usually heart-healthy (95680). Additionally, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has determined that foods containing at least 350 mg potassium and that are low in sodium, saturated fat, and cholesterol can state that "diets containing foods that are good sources of potassium and low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure and stroke" (1310,8817).
• Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). Oral prescription potassium citrate reduces the risk of kidney stone recurrence. It is unclear if non-prescription potassium citrate would be beneficial. Details: The American Urological Association (AUA) recommends potassium citrate therapy for patients with recurrent calcium stones and low urinary citrate, those with recurrent calcium or calcium oxalate stones without current metabolic abnormalities, and those with uric acid or cystine stones. The citrate component reduces urine calcium excretion and increases urine citrate and urine pH, which in turn alleviates crystal growth, formation, and aggregation. Sodium citrate may also be used to prevent stone recurrence; however, due to sodium's propensity to increase urine calcium excretion, potassium citrate remains the preferred salt formulation (107972). It is important to note that potassium citrate supplements are not equivalent to prescription potassium citrate products. Dose and duration of treatment is determined by a healthcare professional and individualized based on a patient's urinary citrate levels (107975,107989). Serum potassium levels should be monitored prior to starting potassium citrate, within 2 weeks of treatment initiation, and every 12 months (107975).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Eating foods high in potassium and low in sodium might reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. It is unclear if taking potassium supplements has the same benefit. Details: Large population studies in adults without prior CVD have found that higher dietary potassium intake is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular events (109395,109399). One study found that daily potassium intake of about 3300 mg is associated with a 13% reduction in CVD risk when compared with intake of about 1920 mg (109399). The other study found that each additional 1000 mg of daily urinary potassium excretion, which is a marker of dietary intake, is associated with an 18% reduction in CVD risk (109395). Another observational study in over 15,000 adults with history of stroke or hypertension shows that replacing regular table salt with a substitute product containing 75% sodium chloride and 25% potassium chloride for an average of 5 years decreases the rate of stroke, major cardiovascular events, or death (107976). High quality clinical trials are needed to confirm this association. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has determined that foods containing at least 350 mg potassium and that are low in sodium, saturated fat, and cholesterol can state that "diets containing foods that are good sources of potassium and low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure and stroke" (1310,8817).
• Stroke. Eating foods high in potassium and low in sodium might reduce the risk of stroke. It is unclear if taking potassium supplements has the same benefit. Details: Higher dietary intake of potassium seems to be associated with a lower risk of stroke. Population research has found that increasing dietary potassium intake by 1-1.5 grams daily is associated with up to a 20% reduced risk of stroke (92105,92107). Some population research has found that higher supplemental intake of potassium is associated with a 29% reduced risk of ischemic stroke. However, supplemental potassium intake is not found to be associated with a lower risk of hemorrhagic or total stroke (92107). An observational study in over 15,000 adults with history of stroke or hypertension shows that replacing regular table salt with a substitute product containing 75% sodium chloride and 25% potassium chloride for an average of 5 years decreases the rate of stroke, major cardiovascular events, or death (107976). High quality clinical trials are needed to confirm this association. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has determined that foods containing at least 350 mg potassium and that are low in sodium, saturated fat, and cholesterol can state that "diets containing foods that are good sources of potassium and low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure and stroke" (1310,8817).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Dental hypersensitivity. It is unclear if topical potassium improves dental hypersensitivity. Details: One meta-analysis of clinical research shows that using a dentifrice containing 5% potassium nitrite reduces dentin sensitivity when compared with a dentifrice that does not contain potassium nitrite (69549). Other clinical research published in a systematic review shows that potassium-containing toothpastes might reduce dentin sensitivity more than controls that do not contain potassium. However, these toothpastes might be less effective than other active toothpastes, such as those containing sodium monofluorophosphate, and the effect may result from a placebo effect, since the mechanism of action of potassium is unclear (69456).
• Diabetes. It is unclear if increasing dietary potassium reduces the risk of diabetes. Details: A meta-analysis of 7 large population studies has found that consuming dietary potassium 3300-3500 mg daily is associated with a 20% reduction in the risk of diabetes when compared with consumption below 1000 mg daily. Results were similar when studies that measured potassium intake with a dietary questionnaire were analyzed separately from those that measured intake based on urinary potassium excretion (110776). However, the validity of this finding is limited by the heterogeneity of the included studies. Furthermore, despite use of data from various databases, most studies included in the analysis were conducted by the same author.
• Impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). It is unclear if oral potassium improves glycemic control in prediabetes. Details: A small clinical study in Black patients with prediabetes shows that taking extended-release potassium (Klor-Con M10, Cardinal Health) 40 mEq daily as potassium chloride for 3 months does not improve glucose tolerance when compared with placebo. Although fasting glucose levels were slightly reduced in the potassium group when compared with placebo, both groups experienced a worsening of glucose intolerance, with no change in insulin levels or glycated hemoglobin (98533).
• Osteoporosis. Although there is interest in using oral potassium for osteoporosis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of potassium for this condition.
• Physical performance. It is unclear if oral potassium improves physical performance in older adults. Details: Observational research in older adults has found that decreased dietary potassium intake and increased dietary sodium intake over 5 years is associated with worsened physical performance (105450).
• Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). It is unclear if oral potassium is beneficial in patients with SLE. Details: Observational research in patients with SLE has found that increased dietary potassium intake is not associated with improvements in disease activity scores or markers of cardiovascular disease, including lipid levels and blood pressure, when compared with low dietary potassium intake. However, higher potassium intake does seem to reduce the odds of having elevated levels of C-reactive protein, a marker of inflammation, in these patients (109397). More evidence is needed to rate potassium for these uses.

(Read more about POTASSIUM)

Proteolytic enzymes represent a wide group of enzymes that are used alone or in combination. See specific monographs for effectiveness information.

(Read more about PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES (PROTEASES))

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Aging skin. Topical red raspberry leaf has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in females aged 30-65 years shows that applying a specific liquid (Antioxidant and Collagen Booster Serum, Max Biocare Pty Ltd.) containing red raspberry leaf cell culture extract 0.0005%, vitamin C 20%, and vitamin E 1% to the face nightly for 8 weeks, in addition to regular facial skin products, improves skin color, elasticity, radiance, smoothness, and appearance of wrinkles when compared with regular facial skin products alone (102355).
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for CVD, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Congestive heart failure (CHF). Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for CHF, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Diabetes. Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for diabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Dysmenorrhea. Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for dysmenorrhea, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Hypertension. Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for hypertension, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Influenza. Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for influenza, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Labor pain. Some research suggests that oral red raspberry leaf does not reduce analgesic use during labor. Details: Clinical research shows that taking red raspberry leaf 2.4 grams daily, beginning at 32 weeks' gestation and continuing until delivery, does not decrease the need for analgesics in the perinatal time period when compared with placebo (9796). A systematic review of retrospective studies also supports these findings, showing no improvement in perineal outcomes in patients consuming red raspberry leaf prior to labor (108005).
• Menorrhagia. Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for menorrhagia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Obesity. It is unclear if oral red raspberry fruit is beneficial in patients with obesity. Details: Preliminary clinical research in overweight and obese adults shows that consuming frozen red raspberry fruit 280 grams daily for 8 weeks does not reduce body mass index or waist circumference when compared with control (105873).
• Osteoarthritis. It is unclear if oral red raspberry leaf extract is beneficial for knee osteoarthritis. Details: A moderate-sized clinical study in patients with knee osteoarthritis shows that taking red raspberry leaf extract 200 or 400 mg once daily for 12 weeks reduces pain at the higher dose when measured by the visual analog scale, but does not improve physical performance, physical activity, walking distance, or Western Ontario McMaster osteoarthritis index (WOMAC) global score or pain, stiffness, and function subscores when compared with placebo (112127).
• Parturition. Some research suggests that oral red raspberry leaf does not shorten the duration of labor. Details: Clinical research shows that taking red raspberry leaf 2.4 grams daily, beginning at 32 weeks' gestation and continuing until delivery, does not reduce the length of labor when compared with placebo (108005). Traditionally, doses of up to 4 grams daily have been recommended for this purpose; however, doses greater than 2.4 grams daily have not been evaluated for safety or efficacy. Further high-quality research is needed to determine the optimal dose, duration, and formulation, if any, of red raspberry leaf for this purpose.
• Pharyngitis. Although there has been interest in using topical red raspberry leaf for pharyngitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting. Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose.
• Respiratory tract infections. Although there has been interest in using oral red raspberry leaf for respiratory tract infections, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of red raspberry for this purpose. More evidence is needed to rate red raspberry leaf for this use.

(Read more about RED RASPBERRY)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Cognitive function. It is unclear if consuming spinach is beneficial for cognitive function. Details: Preliminary clinical research in healthy adults shows that consuming spinach 200 grams with lunch does not improve attention or memory after 150 minutes when compared with a rice milk control (96852).
• Muscle strength. It is unclear if oral spinach is beneficial for muscle strength. Details: A small, preliminary clinical study in healthy adults over 50 years of age shows that taking an aqueous spinach extract, 1 gram orally twice daily, in conjunction with a moderate-intensity exercise program, 3 sessions per week of 1 hour each for 12 weeks, improves several measures of muscle strength and quality in both sexes, and increases lower leg muscle mass in males, when compared with placebo (109546).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral spinach can reduce the risk of developing NAFLD. Details: A large observational study has found that raw, but not boiled, spinach consumption is inversely associated with the risk of developing NAFLD (106566).
• Obesity. It is unclear if consuming spinach is beneficial for weight loss. Details: Preliminary clinical research in overweight or obese middle-aged and older females shows that taking a specific spinach product (Appethyl, Greenleaf Medical AB) 5 grams daily before breakfast for 12 weeks increases weight loss by an additional 1.5 kg when compared with placebo. However, fat loss, waist circumference, and blood lipids are not improved when compared with placebo (96856,96857).
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It is unclear if oral spinach-derived thylakoids are beneficial for PCOS. Details: A small clinical study in premenopausal adults with PCOS and obesity shows that adding 5 grams orally daily of spinach-derived thylakoids to a low-calorie diet for 12 weeks reduces weight and body mass index (BMI) by 8%, compared with 4% with placebo and the low-calorie diet. Insulin resistance is also improved among those receiving spinach extract. These changes are unlikely to be clinically significant (106568). More evidence is needed to rate spinach for these uses.

(Read more about SPINACH)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Diabetes. Oral stinging nettle seems to improve glycemic control in patients with diabetes. Details: A meta-analysis of 8 small heterogeneous clinical trials in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking stinging nettle 1.5-10 grams in divided doses daily for 8-12 weeks reduces fasting blood glucose (FBG) by 18 mg/dL when compared with placebo (102865). Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) was not improved, but the study durations were not adequate to detect an improvement in this measure. Despite positive results on FBG, taking stinging nettle does not seem to improve insulin secretion or measures of insulin sensitivity (91519,102865,108903). Another meta-analysis of 3 small clinical studies in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking stinging nettle reduces HbA1c by about 1.3% when compared with placebo. This analysis also suggests stinging nettle reduces post-prandial blood glucose by about 114 mg/dL; however, this is based on a single study. Stinging nettle did not improve fasting blood glucose or insulin resistance in this analysis (111503). The validity of these findings is limited by the low quality and heterogeneity of included studies, as well as unclear dosing. Furthermore, since most research has been conducted in Iran, it is unknown if these findings are generalizable to other geographic locations. Stinging nettle has also been used in combination with other natural medicines. One small clinical study in adults with type 2 diabetes shows that taking a product containing stinging nettle leaf extract 200 mg, milk thistle 200 mg, and Boswellia serrata gum 200 mg three times daily for 3 months reduces FBP by about 28 mg/dL and HbA1c by about 1.5%, compared with a smaller reduction in the placebo group (96742). It is unclear if this effect is due to stinging nettle, the other ingredients, or the combination.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). It is unclear if oral stinging nettle is beneficial for hay fever. Details: Taking stinging nettle leaf extract 300 mg 3-7 times daily at the first sign of hay fever symptoms seems to provide subjective improvement (7035). However, adding stinging nettle to conventional allergy medication might not provide any additional benefit. One small clinical study shows that adding stinging nettle tablets (Urtidin, Barij Essence Pharmaceutical Co.) 150 mg four times daily for 1 month to treatment with loratadine and nasal saline rinses does not improve symptoms of allergic rhinitis when compared with placebo with loratadine and nasal saline rinses (96743).
• Anemia. Although there is interest in using oral stinging nettle for anemia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of stinging nettle for this condition.
• Asthma. Although there is interest in using oral stinging nettle for asthma, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of stinging nettle for this condition.
• Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). It is unclear if oral stinging nettle is beneficial for BPH. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research, including 5 clinical studies and 1,128 patients with BPH, shows that taking stinging nettle root extract 360-600 mg in divided doses daily for 2-12 months improves peak urinary flow rate and symptom scores while modestly reducing prostate volume when compared with control. However, the validity of these results is limited by significant heterogeneity due to the variability in the products used and the specific endpoints investigated (96744). In the largest clinical trial in the analysis, patients took stinging nettle root extract 120 mg three times daily for 6 months (76406). Stinging nettle has also been evaluated in combination products. Clinical research in patients with BPH shows that taking a specific combination product (PRO 160/120, Dr. Willmar Schwabe Pharmaceuticals) containing a specific extract of stinging nettle root (WS 1031) 120 mg plus a specific extract of saw palmetto fruit (WS 1473) 160 mg twice daily for 24-48 weeks seems to improve urinary tract symptoms when compared with control; the effect may last at least 48 weeks after treatment (15195,15551,76409). However, taking a different combination product does not seem to be beneficial. A small clinical study in patients with BPH shows that taking a product containing stinging nettle root extract 240 mg, saw palmetto, pumpkin seed oil, lemon bioflavonoid, and beta-carotene, three times daily for 6 months, does not improve symptoms of BPH (5093).
• Bleeding. Topical stinging nettle has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Some preliminary clinical research shows that applying 4 mL of a specific product (Ankaferd blood stopper, Mefar Ilaç Sanayi A.S) containing alpinia, licorice, thyme, stinging nettle, and common grape vine to the affected area reduces bleeding, but does not improve the time for episiotomy repair, when compared with using saline (31010).
• Gingivitis. Stinging nettle in a mouthwash solution has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with moderate gingival inflammation suggests that using 10 mL of mouthwash solution containing a 1:1:1 mixture of stinging nettle, juniper, and yarrow twice daily for 3 months does not reduce plaque or bleeding when compared with control (76443). It is not clear if this effect is due to stinging nettle, the other ingredients, or the combination.
• Gout. Although there is interest in using oral stinging nettle for gout, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of stinging nettle for this condition.
• Gulf war syndrome. It is unclear if oral stinging nettle is beneficial for Gulf war syndrome. Details: A very small exploratory clinical trial in males with Gulf war syndrome shows that taking stinging nettle leaf (Nature's Way) 1305 mg in two divided doses daily for 30 days modestly improves symptom severity when compared with placebo (108311). The clinical relevance of this finding is limited by the use of an unvalidated scoring scale. Additionally, it appears that most patients had mild, unspecified symptoms at baseline; it is unclear if stinging nettle is beneficial for moderate to severe symptoms.
• Hyperandrogenism. It is unclear if oral stinging nettle is beneficial in patients with hyperandrogenism. Details: Preliminary clinical research in females with hyperandrogenism shows that taking dried extract of stinging nettle root 300-600 mg daily for approximately 4 months decreases total and free testosterone levels, but not menstrual cycle conditions, oily skin, or acne, when compared with taking spironolactone and cyproterone (91520).
• Insect bite. Oral stinging nettle has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that applying a homeopathic after-bite gel, containing stinging nettle, Echinacea, and marsh Labrador tea, on affected areas does not reduce erythema or itching after a mosquito bite when compared with placebo (89235).
• Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). Although there is interest in using oral stinging nettle for kidney stones, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of stinging nettle for this condition.
• Myalgia. Although there is interest in using topical stinging nettle for myalgia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of stinging nettle for this purpose.
• Osteoarthritis. Small clinical studies suggest that topical stinging nettle may modestly improve pain in patients with osteoarthritis. It is unclear if oral stinging nettle is beneficial. Details: Topically, stinging nettle leaf may have a counterirritant effect which may improve osteoarthritis pain in some patients. A small clinical study in patients ages 45-82 with osteoarthritis of the thumb shows that applying raw stinging nettle leaf to the thumb for 30 seconds daily for 1 week reduces pain and disability when compared with white dead nettle leaf control (12490). However, in another small clinical study in patients with knee osteoarthritis, topical application of raw stinging nettle leaf to the knee for 1 minute daily for 7 days does not seem to be more effective for reducing pain than applying a leaf from a related stingless nettle (76412). Non-raw stinging nettle has also been tried. In a small open-label study, a formulation of stinging nettle extract (Liquid PhytoCaps Nettle Leaf, Gaia Herbs) 13.33% compounded with lipobase oil-in-water emulsion and applied to the affected area twice daily for 2 weeks, modestly improves pain and function in patients with radiologically confirmed osteoarthritis when compared with baseline (76414). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Stinging nettle has also been evaluated orally, in combination with other ingredients. A clinical study in adults with knee osteoarthritis shows that taking a specific combination solution (Rosaxan, medAgil Gesundheitsgesellschaft mbH) containing stinging nettle extract 160 mg, rose hip puree 20 grams, devil's claw 108 mg, and vitamin D 200 IU daily for 12 weeks improves symptoms by an additional 28% and pain scores by an additional 33% when compared with placebo (96741). It is unclear if this effect is due to stinging nettle, the other ingredients, or the combination.
• Tinnitus. Oral stinging nettle has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with tinnitus shows that taking a specific product containing stinging nettle, tansy, and rose hip (Neurotec, Rose Pharmed), 100 mg orally daily for 3 months does not improve auditory thresholds when compared with placebo. However, the product improved some subjective symptoms scores, such as perceived loudness and severity scores (110512).
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Although there is interest in using oral stinging nettle for UTIs, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of stinging nettle for this condition. More evidence is needed to rate stinging nettle for these uses.

(Read more about STINGING NETTLE)

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Bladder cancer. Consuming tomatoes and tomato-based products does not appear to reduce the risk of bladder cancer. Details: Observational studies have found no association between tomato and tomato-based product intake and the risk of bladder cancer (2407).
• Breast cancer. Consuming tomatoes and tomato-based products does not appear to reduce the risk of breast cancer. Details: Observational studies have found no association between tomato or tomato-based product intake and risk of breast cancer (15747).
• Diabetes. Consuming tomatoes and tomato-based products does not appear to prevent the development of type 2 diabetes or improve glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Details: Observational studies have found that increasing intake of tomato or tomato-based products does not significantly decrease the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (14004,14361). Additionally, a small clinical study in non-smoking male patients with type 2 diabetes shows that consuming raw tomato 200 grams daily for 8 weeks does not improve plasma glucose levels when compared to baseline (102477). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of comparator group.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Aging skin. It is unclear if tomato improves skin appearance. Details: A small study of females aged 35-55 shows that taking a certain tomato pulp product (Lumenato, Lycored) 1 capsule daily for 12 weeks improves patient reported skin appearance scores when compared to baseline (110523). The interpretation of this result is limited by the lack of a placebo group.
• Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Oral tomato powder has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with BPH shows that taking 5 grams of a whole tomato food supplement consisting of tomato powder and polyphenols extracted from olives daily for 2 months improves quality of life and reduces lower urinary tract symptoms including urinary frequency, urinary urgency, and nocturia when compared to baseline. No improvements in these symptoms were reported with placebo (106656). It is unclear if these findings are due to tomato, olive polyphenols, or the combination.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is unclear if consuming tomato-based foods reduces the risk of cardiovascular events. Details: Observational research has found that increased consumption of tomato-based foods is associated with an insignificant trend towards a reduced risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, and other cardiovascular events (10418,102178).
• Cataracts. It is unclear if consuming tomatoes reduces the risk of cataracts. Details: Observational research has found that eating more than 3 servings of tomatoes each week may decrease the risk of developing cataracts (9439).
• Cervical cancer. It is unclear if consuming tomatoes reduces the risk of cervical cancer. Details: Observational research has found that increased tomato intake is associated with a decreased risk of cervical cancer (2407).
• Colorectal cancer. Research on the benefits of consuming tomatoes or tomato-based products for the prevention of colorectal cancer is conflicting and limited to observational studies only. Details: Some observational research has found that increasing tomato or tomato-based product intake is associated with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer (2404,2407). However, higher quality observational research has found that tomato-based product intake is not associated with risk of colorectal cancer (15747).
• Exercise-induced asthma. It is unclear if oral tomato extract is beneficial in patients with exercise-induced asthma. Details: A small clinical study in patients with exercise-induced asthma shows that taking a specific tomato extract (Lyc-O-Mato, LycoRed Ltd) 30 mg daily for 1 week seems to reduce exercise-induced asthma when compared with placebo. The tomato extract seems to prevent decreases in forced expiratory volume (FEV1) in response to exercise (7898).
• Gastric cancer. Research on the benefits of consuming tomatoes or tomato-based products for the prevention of gastric cancer is conflicting and limited to observational studies only. Details: Some observational studies have found that increasing tomato or tomato-based product intake is associated with a reduced risk of gastric cancer in some subgroups of patients (2407,15747,102480). However, other observational research has found that tomato-based product intake is not associated with risk of gastric cancer (15747). In 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim regarding tomatoes and gastric cancer risk. However, the FDA concludes that it is highly unlikely that tomatoes reduce the risk of gastric cancer (102375).
• Hyperlipidemia. Small clinical studies suggest that consuming tomato sauce or semi-dried tomatoes may modestly reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in patients with hyperlipidemia. Details: One small, open-label clinical trial in patients with hyperlipidemia shows that consuming a specific vine-ripened tomato sauce (OsteoCol, C.G. Food, SRL) 150 mL daily for 6 weeks reduces total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels when compared to baseline. Patients adherent to the tomato sauce regimen showed an 11 mg/dL and 12 mg/dL reduction in total and LDL cholesterol, respectively, while those consuming a sterol-enriched yogurt saw total and LDL cholesterol levels decrease by 18 mg/dL and 16 mg/dL, respectively. Patients with a baseline LDL cholesterol level of greater than 152 mg/dL saw the greatest benefit from this tomato sauce (106653). Another small clinical study in Japanese patients with borderline high cholesterol shows that taking 50 grams of a semi-dried tomato containing lycopene 22-27.8 mg daily for 12 weeks modestly reduces LDL cholesterol levels but does not affect high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels when compared with taking 50 grams of a tomato without lycopene (102180). This suggests that any benefit of tomato on blood lipid levels is likely due to its lycopene content.
• Hypertension. Small clinical studies and observational research suggest that oral tomato extract or dietary tomato consumption may modestly reduce blood pressure in patients with hypertension. Details: Several small clinical trials in patients with hypertension show that taking a specific tomato extract product (Lyc-O-Mato, LycoRed, Ltd.), providing lycopene 15-30 mg daily, for 6-8 weeks, reduces systolic blood pressure by around 7-13 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure by around 4-6 mmHg when compared to baseline (14287,60415,102182). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Additionally, a large observational study, conducted over 3 years, suggests that moderate consumption of tomato-based products (i.e., 44-82 grams daily) is associated with marginally lower blood pressure when compared with higher and lower consumption in older adults with grade 1 hypertension. However, this association is not seen in patients with grade 2 or 3 hypertension (113145). Interpretation of these results is limited by self-reported data and lack of generalizability outside of confounders relating to a Mediterranean lifestyle. Evidence on the use of tomato in patients with pre-hypertension is mixed. One small clinical study in patients with pre-hypertension shows that taking a specific tomato extract (Fruitflow, Provexis Plc, UK.) 150 mg as a single dose seems to modestly reduce blood pressure over a 24-hour period when compared with placebo (102478). This study is limited by its small size and short duration. Another small clinical study in pre-hypertensive patients shows that taking a specific tomato extract (Lyc-o-Mato, LycoRed Ltd) containing lycopene 15 mg daily for 8 weeks does not reduce blood pressure when compared with placebo (42079). The impact of dietary tomato consumption on preventing hypertension has also been evaluated. A large prospective observational study in Chinese adults without a history of smoking or myocardial infarction suggests moderate dietary intake of tomatoes (i.e. up to 33.3 grams daily) is associated with a 49-58% reduction in the risk of developing new onset hypertension when compared with no consumption after about 6 years' follow up. However, the associated risk reduction was less with higher consumption (110525). These results may not apply to patients in countries where dietary trends are different, and the validity of these findings is limited by the potential for confounding. Another large observational study, conducted over 3 years in older adults at high cardiovascular risk, suggests that higher consumption (i.e., at least 1 large-sized tomato daily) is associated with reduced risk of hypertension by 36% when compared with moderate and lower consumption (113145). However, interpretation of these results is limited by self-reported data, and lack of generalizability outside of confounders relating to a Mediterranean lifestyle.
• Lung cancer. It is unclear if consuming tomatoes reduces the risk of lung cancer; the available research is conflicting. Details: Some observational studies have found an association between increased tomato and tomato-based product consumption and a reduced risk of lung cancer; however, many of these studies were not stratified based on the patient's smoking status. Higher quality, large-scale observational studies have not found any association between tomato product intake and lung cancer risk (15747).
• Muscle strength. It is unclear if consuming tomatoes improves muscle strength or attenuates declines in muscle strength. Details: A small observational study in Japanese adults 22-68 years of age found that more frequent tomato consumption (2 or more times weekly) is associated with an attenuated rate of handgrip strength decline over 3 years when compared with less frequent tomato consumption (102473).
• Ovarian cancer. Research on the benefits of consuming tomatoes or tomato-based products for the prevention of ovarian cancer is conflicting and limited to observational studies only. Details: Some observational research has found that increased tomato or tomato juice intake is not associated with risk of ovarian cancer; however, consuming tomato sauce two or more times weekly is associated with a decreased risk (2407). Other observational research has found that increased dietary intake of lycopene, particularly from tomato sauce, is associated with a reduced risk of ovarian cancer in premenopausal patients (10133). In 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim regarding tomato sauce and ovarian cancer risk. However, the FDA concludes that it is highly uncertain that tomato sauce reduces the risk of ovarian cancer (102375).
• Pancreatic cancer. Research on the benefits of consuming tomatoes or tomato-based products for the prevention of pancreatic cancer is conflicting and limited to observational studies only. Details: A large-scale observational study have found that that tomato or tomato-based product intake is not associated with a decreased risk of pancreatic cancer (15747). However, other observational studies have found that raw tomato intake, and high tomato intake in general, is associated with a reduced risk of pancreatic cancer (2407,15747,15750). In 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim regarding tomatoes and pancreatic cancer risk. However, the FDA concludes that it is highly unlikely that tomatoes reduce the risk of pancreatic cancer (102375).
• Prostate cancer. Consuming tomatoes or tomato-based products may slightly lower the risk of prostate cancer; however, observational research is mixed and high-quality clinical trials addressing tomato intake and prostate cancer risk are lacking. Details: Some observational studies have found that consuming tomato products, including tomatoes, tomato sauce, pizza, or tomato juice, one time or more per week, is associated with a modest reduction in the risk of prostate cancer (2406,7772,7895,12878,15747,102476). However, other observational research has found that tomato consumption is not associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer (14125,15172,15747,92171). One small clinical study in patients with high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia shows that taking tomato extract capsules containing lycopene 30 mg daily for 6 months does not impact benign tissue endpoints when compared with placebo (102471). In 2005, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim stating that one-half to one cup of tomatoes or tomato sauce weekly may reduce the risk of prostate cancer. However, the FDA concludes that there is little scientific evidence to support this claim (102375).
• Radiation dermatitis. It is unclear if drinking tomato juice is beneficial in patients with radiation dermatitis. Details: One small, uncontrolled clinical trial in patients undergoing radiotherapy for breast cancer shows that drinking tomato juice 160 mg daily for 6 months after radiotherapy improves the severity of dermatitis within 1 month of treatment when compared to baseline (106654). The lack of a comparator group limits the validity of these findings; it is unclear how tomato juice consumption compared with the natural resolution of radiation dermatitis. More evidence is needed to rate tomato for these uses.

(Read more about TOMATO)

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for BPH, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Beta-thalassemia. It is unclear if oral wheatgrass is beneficial in patients with beta-thalassemia. Details: A small clinical study in children with beta-thalassemia major shows that taking wheatgrass tablets orally in doses of 1-1.5 grams daily for children aged 1-3 years, 3 grams daily for children 4-8 years, and 4 grams daily for children aged 9 years and older for 12 months decreases the mean blood transfused as packed cells by about 18%, increases mean hemoglobin by about 7%, and increases the mean interval between consecutive blood transfusions by about 5 days when compared to baseline (93021). The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group and high patient dropout rate. However, another small clinical study shows that taking wheatgrass tablets 100 mg/kg orally daily for 6 months followed by 200 mg/kg daily for an additional 6 months does not reduce the transfusion requirement when compared to baseline in children or adults with beta-thalassemia major (93020). The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Another small, low-quality study shows that drinking wheatgrass juice 100 mL daily for 18 months reduces blood transfusion requirements in children with beta-thalassemia major when compared to baseline (85601). The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group and high patient dropout rate.
• Bronchitis. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for bronchitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Cancer. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for cancer, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Common cold. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for common cold, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Cough. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for cough, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Diabetes. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for diabetes, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Gout. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for gout, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Hypercholesterolemia. It is unclear if oral wheatgrass is beneficial in patients with hypercholesterolemia. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that taking freeze-dried wheatgrass powder 3.5 grams orally daily for 10 weeks reduces total cholesterol by 5% and triglycerides by 10% when compared to baseline in females aged 30-60 years with elevated cholesterol levels. However, taking wheatgrass powder does not reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or fasting blood glucose levels in these patients (95906).
• Hypertension. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for hypertension, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis). Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for nephrolithiasis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Plantar heel pain. It is unclear if topical wheatgrass is beneficial in patients with plantar heel pain. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with chronic plantar fasciitis shows that applying a wheatgrass 10% cream topically to the bottom of the feet twice daily for 6 weeks is no more effective than placebo for reducing pain or improving measures of injury resolution (85602).
• Pharyngitis. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for pharyngitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Prostatitis. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for prostatitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Ulcerative colitis. It is unclear if oral wheatgrass is beneficial in patients with ulcerative colitis. Details: A small clinical study in adults with active distal ulcerative colitis shows that drinking 100 mL of freshly extracted wheatgrass juice daily for 1 month modestly reduces overall disease activity and the severity of rectal bleeding when compared with placebo (11165).
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for UTIs, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose.
• Wound healing. Although there has been interest in using oral wheatgrass for wound healing, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of wheatgrass for this purpose. More evidence is needed to rate the effectiveness of wheatgrass for these uses.

(Read more about WHEATGRASS)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in food amounts. Eating apples and consuming apple juice is safe for most people. Apples are a common food source (3470,3472). However, eating apple seeds should be avoided because they can be toxic (6).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in food amounts. Eating apples and consuming apple juice is safe for most people. Apples are a common food source (3470,3472).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when apple pectin is used orally and appropriately, short-term. Preliminary clinical research suggests that combination products containing apple pectin and German chamomile (Diarrhoesan) are safe when used in infants for up to one week (19705,19706).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of apple in amounts greater than those found in foods during pregnancy and lactation; avoid using.

(Read more about APPLE)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in food amounts (4819,4820,4821,5104,10166,10435,11134,11463,11986,92818). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of barley when used orally in medicinal amounts or when applied topically.

PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (19).

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when barley sprouts are consumed in relatively high doses. Excessive amounts of barley sprouts should not be consumed during pregnancy (19).

LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about BARLEY)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods.

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately for medicinal purposes, short term. Beetroot juice has been safely used in clinical trials in doses of up to 500 mL daily for up to 7 days and a beetroot-based nutritional gel has been used safely in doses of up to 100 grams daily for 8 days (94461,94462,94464,100149,100152,100153).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of beets used medicinally during pregnancy and breast-feeding.

(Read more about BEET)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Blueberry, as the whole fruit, juice, or in a powder formulation, is safe when consumed in amounts commonly found in foods (13533,92387,92388,92394,96467,97181,99139). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of blueberry when used topically or when the leaves are used orally.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in amounts commonly found in foods (13533,96465).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (13533,107281). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of blueberry for medicinal use; avoid using.

(Read more about BLUEBERRY)

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when non-contaminated species of spirulina blue-green algae are used orally and appropriately (91713). The blue-green algae species Arthrospira platensis has been used with apparent safety in doses up to 19 grams daily for 2 months, or 10 grams daily for 6 months (18296,18300,18306,75944,91705,99703,104567,109965). The blue-green algae species Arthrospira fusiformis has been used with apparent safety in doses up to 4 grams daily for 3 months, or 1 gram daily for 12 months (15782,91717). Another blue-green algae species, Arthrospira maxima, has been used with apparent safety in a dose of 4.5 grams daily for up to 12 weeks (18297,99654,99655,102688). ...when non-contaminated, non-toxin producing strains of blue-green algae from the Aphanizomenon flos-aquae species are used orally and appropriately. Doses up to 1.6 grams daily have been used with apparent safety for up to 6 months (14842,18310). Some blue-green algae species can produce toxins called microcystins. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the tolerable daily intake of microcystins in adults is 0.04 mcg/kg (96549).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when contaminated blue-green algae are used orally. Blue-green algae can be contaminated with heavy metals (including mercury, cadmium, lead, or arsenic), neurotoxins, and toxic microcystin-producing cyanobacteria such as Microcystis aeruginosa (9171,75966,91704,91711,96550). Microcystins are most commonly reported in the blue-green algae species Aphanizomenon flos-aquae harvested from Upper Klamath Lake in Oregon. The Oregon Department of Health has set a limit of 1 mcg of microcystin-LR equivalents per gram dry weight of blue-green algae, assuming consumption of about 2 grams/day by adults (91704,91713). However, many samples of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae have been reported to contain higher levels than this (9171,91704). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the tolerable daily intake of microcystins in adults is 0.04 mcg/kg (96549). When consumed orally, microcystins accumulate in the liver, binding to and inhibiting protein phosphatases, causing hepatocyte damage and possible tumor promotion (9171). Aphanizomenon flos-aquae can also produce neurotoxic compounds that may be present in supplements containing this organism (91704).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when blue-green algae products are used orally. Blue-green algae can accumulate heavy metals such as lead and mercury (91704,91711). They can also contain toxic microcystins produced by contaminating species of cyanobacteria such a Microcystis aeruginosa (91704). Children are more sensitive to poisoning by microcystins (3536). The Oregon Department of Health has set a limit for microcystins of 1 mcg per gram dry weight of blue-green algae, but some countries have set very low exposure limits of 0.2 mcg per day and 0.8 mcg per day for infants and children, respectively (91704).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using. Some blue-green algae products, specifically those of the species Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, have been found to contain low amounts of beta-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA). BMAA is associated with neurodegenerative diseases, and breast milk has been shown to be a potential source of BMAA exposure in infants (96550).

(Read more about BLUE-GREEN ALGAE)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in food amounts (14145). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of broccoli when used in medicinal amounts.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in food amounts (14145). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of broccoli when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation; avoid using.

(Read more about BROCCOLI)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods (12659,12660). Burdock root is commonly eaten as a vegetable (37422,92153,92154)

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used topically, short-term. An emulsion containing burdock fruit extract 1.2% has been safely applied to the face twice daily for 4 weeks (37420). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of burdock when used orally in supplemental doses.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about BURDOCK)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally or intravenously and appropriately. Calcium is safe when used in appropriate doses (7555,12928,12946,95817). However, excessive doses should be avoided. The Institute of Medicine sets the daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium according to age as follows: Age 0-6 months, 1000 mg; 6-12 months, 1500 mg; 1-8 years, 2500 mg; 9-18 years, 3000 mg; 19-50 years, 2500 mg; 51+ years, 2000 mg (17506). Doses over these levels can increase the risk of side effects such as kidney stone, hypercalciuria, hypercalcemia, and milk-alkali syndrome. There has also been concern that calcium intake may be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and coronary heart disease (CHD), including myocardial infarction (MI). Some clinical research suggests that calcium intake, often in amounts over the recommended daily intake level of 1000-1300 mg daily for adults, is associated with an increased risk of CVD, CHD, and MI (16118,17482,91350,107233). However, these studies, particularly meta-analyses, have been criticized for excluding trials in which calcium was administered with vitamin D (94137). Many of these trials also only included postmenopausal females. Other analyses report conflicting results, and have not shown that calcium intake affects the risk of CVD, CHD, or MI (92994,93533,97308,107231). Advise patients not to consume more than the recommended daily intake of 1000-1200 mg per day and to consider total calcium intake from both dietary and supplemental sources (17484). Also, advise patients taking calcium supplements to take calcium along with vitamin D (93533).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in excessive doses. The National Academy of Medicine sets the daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium according to age as follows: 19-50 years, 2500 mg; 51 years and older, 2000 mg (17506). Doses over these levels can increase the risk of side effects such as kidney stones, hypercalciuria, hypercalcemia, and milk-alkali syndrome. There has also been concern that calcium intake may be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and coronary heart disease (CHD), including myocardial infarction (MI). Some clinical research suggests that calcium intake, often in amounts over the recommended daily intake level of 1000-1300 mg daily for adults, is associated with an increased risk of CVD, CHD, and MI (16118,17482,91350,107233). However, these studies, particularly meta-analyses, have been criticized for excluding trials in which calcium was administered with vitamin D (94137). Many of these trials also only included postmenopausal females. Other analyses report conflicting results, and have not shown that calcium intake affects the risk of CVD, CHD, or MI (92994,93533,97308,107231). Advise patients to not consume more than the recommended daily intake of 1000-1200 mg per day and to consider total calcium intake from both dietary and supplemental sources (17484). Also, advise patients taking calcium supplements to take calcium along with vitamin D (93533).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. Calcium is safe when used in appropriate doses (17506).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses. The Institute of Medicine sets the daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium according to age as follows: 0-6 months, 1000 mg; 6-12 months, 1500 mg; 1-8 years, 2500 mg; 9-18 years, 3000 mg (17506). Doses over these levels can increase the risk of side effects such as kidney stones, hypercalciuria, hypercalcemia, and milk-alkali syndrome.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately (945,1586,3263,3264,17506). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends prescribing oral calcium supplementation 1.5-2 grams daily during pregnancy to those with low dietary calcium intake to prevent pre-eclampsia (97347).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses. The Institute of Medicine sets the same daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium according to age independent of pregnancy status: 9-18 years, 3000 mg; 19-50 years, 2500 mg (17506). Doses over these amounts might increase the risk of neonatal hypocalcemia-induced seizures possibly caused by transient neonatal hypoparathyroidism in the setting of excessive calcium supplementation during pregnancy, especially during the third trimester. Neonatal hypocalcemia is a risk factor for neonatal seizures (97345).

(Read more about CALCIUM)

There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of camu camu.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about CAMU CAMU)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Carrot essential oil, extracts, and food additives have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally in medicinal amounts, short-term. Carrot has been used safely in doses of approximately 100 grams three times daily for up to 4 weeks (96308). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of carrot when used topically.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (4912). Carrot essential oil, extracts, and food additives have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when carrot juices are used excessively in nursing bottles for small children. Excessive use of carrot juice may cause carotenemia and dental caries (25817).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in food (4912). Carrot essential oil, extracts, and food additives have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of carrot when used in medicinal amounts during pregnancy and lactation.

(Read more about CARROT)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately, short-term. Tablets and liquids containing chlorella 3-10 grams or 60-100 mL daily have been safely used in clinical studies lasting 2-3 months (5890,92130,92131). Also, chlorella extract 200-1800 mg daily has been safely used in clinical research for 4-6 weeks (10388,92132). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of chlorella when used topically.

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts for up to approximately 28 weeks. A commercially available chlorella supplement (Sun Chlorella A, Sun Chlorella Corp.) has been safely used in doses of 6 grams daily, starting during the 12-18th week of gestation and continuing until delivery (95013).

LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about CHLORELLA)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of collard when used orally in medicinal amounts.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid amounts in excess of those found in foods.

(Read more about COLLARD)

LIKELY SAFE . .when used orally and appropriately. Cranberry juice up to 300 mL daily and cranberry extracts in doses up to 800 mg twice daily have been safely used in clinical trials (3333,3334,6758,6760,7008,8252,8253,8254,8995,11328) (16415,16720,17100,17126,17176,17210,17524,46379,46388,46389)(46390,46425,46439,46443,46465,46456,46466,46467,46469,46471)(46496,46499,90044,102847,111407).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when cranberry juice is consumed in amounts commonly found in the diet (2811,6759,46441,46452,46470,111407). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of cranberry when used in medicinal amounts in children.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when consumed in amounts commonly found in the diet. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of cranberry when used therapeutically during pregnancy or lactation; avoid using.

(Read more about CRANBERRY)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Grapes and grape skin extracts have Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status for use in foods in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when the whole fruit of the grape, or extracts of the fruit, seed, or leaf, are used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts. Grape seed extracts have been used with apparent safety in doses up to 200 mg daily for up to 11 months (9182,53016) and in doses up to 2000 mg daily for up to 3 months (53149,53190). Specific grape fruit extracts (Stilvid, Actafarma; Cognigrape, Bionap srl) have been used with apparent safety in doses up to 250-350 mg daily for 3-12 months or 700 mg daily for 6 months (53254,53256,96198). A specific grape leaf extract (AS 195, Antistax, Boehringer Ingelheim) has been used with apparent safety in doses up to 720 mg daily for up to 3 months (2538,52985,53005,53206). A preparation of dehydrated whole grapes, equivalent to 250 grams of fresh grapes daily, has also been used with apparent safety for up to 30 days (18228). A specific grape seed extract (Enovita; Indena SpA) 150 mg twice daily, standardized to provide at least 95% oligomeric proanthocyanins, has been used with apparent safety for up to 16 weeks (108091) ...when used topically and appropriately. Creams and ointments containing grape seed extract 2% or 5% have been used topically with apparent safety for up to 3 weeks (91539,100955). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of other grape plant parts when used topically.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Grapes and grape skin extracts have Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status for use in foods in the US (4912). However, whole grapes should be eaten with caution in children aged 5 years and under. Whole grapes can be a choking hazard for young children (96193). To reduce the risk of choking, whole grapes should be cut in half or quartered before being given to children. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of grape when used in medicinal amounts in children.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of medicinal amounts during pregnancy and breast-feeding; avoid using in amounts greater than what is commonly found in foods.

(Read more about GRAPE)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. For people age 14 and older with adequate iron stores, iron supplements are safe when used in doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 45 mg per day of elemental iron. The UL is not meant to apply to those who receive iron under medical supervision (7135,96621). To treat iron deficiency, most people can safely take up to 300 mg elemental iron per day (15). ...when used intravenously and appropriately. Ferric carboxymaltose 200 mg and iron sucrose 200 mg have been given intravenously for up to 10 doses with no reported serious adverse effects (91179). A meta-analysis of clinical studies of hemodialysis patients shows that administering high-dose intravenous (IV) iron does not increase the risk of hospitalization, infection, cardiovascular events, or death when compared with low-dose IV iron, oral iron, or no iron treatment (102861). A more recent meta-analysis of clinical studies of all patient populations shows that administering IV iron does not increase the risk of hospital length of stay or mortality, although the risk of infection is increased by 16% when compared with oral iron or no iron (110186). Despite these findings, there are rare reports of hypophosphatemia and/or osteomalacia (112603,112608,112609,112610).

LIKELY UNSAFE ...when used orally in excessive doses. Doses of 30 mg/kg are associated with acute toxicity. Long-term use of high doses of iron can cause hemosiderosis and multiple organ damage. The estimated lethal dose of iron is 180-300 mg/kg; however, doses as low as 60 mg/kg have also been lethal (15).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately (7135,91183,112601).

CHILDREN: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive amounts. Tell patients who are not iron-deficient not to use doses above the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 40 mg per day of elemental iron for infants and children. Higher doses frequently cause gastrointestinal side effects such as constipation and nausea (7135,20097). Iron is the most common cause of pediatric poisoning deaths. Doses as low as 60 mg/kg can be fatal (15).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. Iron is safe during pregnancy and breast-feeding in patients with adequate iron stores when used in doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 45 mg daily of elemental iron (7135,96625,110180).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in high doses. Tell patients who are not iron deficient to avoid exceeding the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 45 mg daily of elemental iron. Higher doses frequently cause gastrointestinal side effects such as nausea and vomiting (7135) and might increase the risk of preterm labor (100969). High hemoglobin concentrations at the time of delivery are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes (7135,20109).

(Read more about IRON)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of kale when used orally in medicinal amounts.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of kale when used orally in medicinal amounts; avoid use.

(Read more about KALE)

There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of lipase.

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when recombinant human bile salt-stimulated lipase (rhBSSL) is used orally by premature infants. Adding rhBSSL to infant formula or pasteurized breast milk increases the risk for serious gastrointestinal adverse effects in premature infants (101940).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about LIPASE)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in amounts commonly found in foods. Parsley has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts, short-term (12,13173).

LIKELY UNSAFE ...when used orally in very large doses e., 200 grams). Parsley oil contains significant amounts of the potentially toxic constituents, apiole and myristicin (11). Apiole can cause blood dyscrasias, kidney toxicity, and liver toxicity; myristicin can cause giddiness and hallucinations (4). ...when parsley seed oil is used topically. Applying parsley seed oil to the skin can cause photodermatitis upon sun exposure (4). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of the topical use of parsley leaf and root.

PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in medicinal amounts. Parsley has been used orally as an abortifacient and to stimulate menstrual flow (4,12,515,19104,92873). Population evidence suggests that maternal intake of An-Tai-Yin, an herbal combination product containing parsley and dong quai, during the first trimester increases the risk of congenital malformations of the musculoskeletal system, connective tissue, and eyes (15129).

LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about PARSLEY)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in doses up to 100 mEq total potassium daily, not to exceed 200 mEq in a 24-hour period (95010,107989). Oral potassium chloride and potassium citrate are FDA-approved prescription products (95010,107989). Larger doses increase the risk of hyperkalemia (15). ...when administered intravenously (IV) at appropriate infusion rates (95011). Parenteral potassium is an FDA-approved prescription product (15,95011). A tolerable upper intake level (UL) for potassium has not been established; however, potassium levels should be monitored in individuals at increased risk for hyperkalemia, such as those with kidney disease, heart failure, and adrenal insufficiency (100310,107966).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately in dietary amounts. A tolerable upper intake level (UL) has not been established for healthy individuals (6243,100310).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally in dietary amounts of 40-80 mEq daily (15). A tolerable upper intake level (UL) has not been established for healthy individuals (100310).

(Read more about POTASSIUM)

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Various proteolytic enzymes have been safely used orally in clinical research (716,964,965,968,969,6252,6253,10622,11457,18281,18284) (91104,91105,91106,91111,96449). Side effects are typically mild to moderate and most often include gastrointestinal effects. See specific monographs for more detailed information related to the safety of individual proteolytic enzymes. ...when used topically and appropriately. Various proteolytic enzymes have been safely used topically in clinical research (67835,67843,67845,91113). Some proteolytic enzymes might cause allergic reactions when used topically. See specific monographs for more detailed information related to the safety of individual proteolytic enzymes.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES (PROTEASES))

LIKELY SAFE ...when the fruit is used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (13622).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when the fruit is used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts (6481,9796). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of red raspberry leaf when used orally or topically.

PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when the fruit is used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (13622).

PREGNANCY: POSSIBLY SAFE
when red raspberry leaf is used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts during late pregnancy under the supervision of a healthcare provider. Red raspberry leaf is used by nurse midwives to facilitate delivery. There is some evidence that red raspberry leaf in doses of up to 2.4 grams daily, beginning at 32 weeks' gestation and continued until delivery, can be safely used for this purpose (6481,9796). Make sure patients do not use red raspberry leaf without the guidance of a healthcare professional.

PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when red raspberry leaf is used orally in medicinal amounts throughout pregnancy or for self-treatment. Red raspberry leaf might have estrogenic effects (6180). These effects can adversely affect pregnancy. Tell pregnant patients not to use red raspberry leaf at any time during pregnancy without the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when the fruit is used orally in amounts commonly found in foods (13622). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of red raspberry leaf; avoid using.

(Read more about RED RASPBERRY)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used in amounts commonly found in foods.

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts. Spinach has been used with apparent safety at a dose of 5 grams daily for up to 12 weeks (96856).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when consumed in the amounts commonly found in foods by children older than 4 months of age (18).

CHILDREN: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in infants under 4 months old; the high nitrate content of spinach can cause methemoglobinemia (18). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of spinach in children when used in medicinal amounts.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used in amounts commonly found in foods; avoid medicinal amounts.

(Read more about SPINACH)

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Stinging nettle root 360-600 mg has been used safely for up to 1 year (5093,11230,15195,76406,96744). ...when used topically and appropriately (12490).

PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally due to possible abortifacient and uterine-stimulant effects (4,6,19).

LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about STINGING NETTLE)

LIKELY SAFE ...when the ripe or unripe tomato fruit or its products are consumed in amounts found in foods (2406,9439,10418,106653,106654). ...when tomato leaf is consumed in regular food amounts (18).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when a tomato extract is used orally for medicinal purposes. A specific tomato extract (Lyc-O-Mato, LycoRed Ltd) has been used with apparent safety in clinical studies lasting up to 8 weeks (7898,14287,102182).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when the tomato leaf or unripe green tomato fruit is used orally in excessive amounts. Tomato leaf and unripe green tomatoes contain tomatine, which has been associated with toxicity when consumed in large quantities (18,102957). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of the tomato vine.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when the tomato fruit or its products are consumed in typical food amounts. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of tomato extracts when used during pregnancy or lactation; avoid using.

(Read more about TOMATO)

LIKELY SAFE ...when consumed in amounts commonly found in foods (5286).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when wheatgrass juice is taken orally and appropriately in medicinal amounts. Wheatgrass juice 60-100 mL daily has been used safely for up to 18 months (11165,85601,104878,104879). ...when wheatgrass cream is used topically. Wheatgrass 10% cream has been used safely for up to 6 weeks (85602). There is insufficient reliable information available about the long-term safety of wheatgrass when used medicinally.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION:
Insufficient reliable information available; avoid using.

(Read more about WHEATGRASS)

ALISKIREN (Tekturna, Rasilez) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Concomitant consumption of apple juice can significantly decrease oral absorption and blood levels of aliskiren.  Details Pharmacokinetic research shows that coadministration of apple juice 200 mL along with aliskiren 150 mg decreases the bioavailability of aliskiren by 63% (17670). Apple juice seems to inhibit organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP), which is involved in drug uptake in the gut, liver, and kidney (7046,94413). It is thought that apple juice might affect OATP for only a short time. Therefore, separating drug administration and consumption of apple juice by at least 4 hours might avoid this interaction (17603,17604).

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, consuming apple juice with antidiabetes drugs might interfere with blood glucose control.  Details Clinical research suggests that consuming apples or drinking apple juice can raise blood glucose levels, with the effects of drinking apple juice being more significant than consuming apples (31699).

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Consuming apple juice with antihypertensive drugs might interfere with blood pressure control.  Details Some clinical evidence suggests that consuming apple and cherry juice can increase blood pressure in elderly patients (31680).

ATENOLOL (Tenormin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Concomitant consumption of apple juice can significantly decrease oral absorption and blood levels of atenolol.  Details Pharmacokinetic research shows that coadministration of apple juice 600-1200 mL decreases levels of atenolol by 58% to 82% in a dose-dependent manner (17999). Apple juice seems to inhibit organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP), which is involved in drug uptake in the gut, liver, and kidney (7046). It is thought that apple juice might affect OATP for only a short time. Therefore, separating drug administration and consumption of apple juice by at least 4 hours might avoid this interaction (17603,17604).

FEXOFENADINE (Allegra) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Likely •  Level of Evidence = B Concomitant consumption of apple juice can significantly decrease oral absorption and blood levels of fexofenadine.  Details Pharmacokinetic research shows that coadministration of apple juice 400-1200 mL along with fexofenadine 60-120 mg decreases bioavailability of fexofenadine by up to 78% (7046,94413). Coadministration with smaller quantities of apple juice (150 mL or less) does not appear to affect the bioavailability of fexofenadine (94421). Apple juice seems to inhibit organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP), which is involved in drug uptake in the gut, liver, and kidney (7046,94413). It is thought that apple juice might affect OATP for only a short time. Therefore, separating drug administration and consumption of apple juice by at least 4 hours might avoid this interaction (17603,17604).

LITHIUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D There is some concern that concomitant consumption of apple juice might decrease oral absorption and blood levels of lithium.  Details In one case report, a patient had an undetectable serum lithium level when lithium citrate was administered with apple juice. When lithium was administered with an alternative beverage, the lithium level became detectable and the patient demonstrated clinical improvement (105342).

ORGANIC ANION-TRANSPORTING POLYPEPTIDE SUBSTRATES (OATP) Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Likely •  Level of Evidence = B Concomitant consumption of apple juice can significantly decrease oral absorption and blood levels of OATP substrates.  Details Research shows that consuming apple juice inhibits OATP, which reduces bioavailability of oral drugs that are substrates of OATP (7046,17605). Fexofenadine, atenolol, and aliskiren are substrates of OATP. Clinical research shows that coadministration of apple juice decreases bioavailability of fexofenadine by up to 78% (7046,94413), aliskiren by 63% (17670), and atenolol by up to 82% (17999). These effects appear to increase with larger quantities of apple juice. It is thought that apple juice might affect OATP for only a short time. Therefore, separating drug administration and consumption of apple juice by at least 4 hours might avoid this interaction (17603,17604).

(Read more about APPLE)

TRICLABENDAZOLE (Egaten) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, barley might decrease the clinical effects of triclabendazole.  Details Animal research suggests that a diet supplemented with barley can reduce the bioavailability of triclabendazole when taken concomitantly (23884). This effect has not been shown in humans.

(Read more about BARLEY)

CYTOCHROME P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, beet might decrease the levels and clinical effects of CYP1A2 substrates.  Details In vitro research suggests that beet induces CYP1A2 enzymes (111404).

CYTOCHROME P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, beet might increase the levels of CYP3A4 substrates.  Details In vitro research suggests that betanin, the major pigment in beet, competitively inhibits CYP3A4 in a dose-dependent manner similarly to strong CYP3A4 inhibitor ketoconazole (113425).

(Read more about BEET)

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, blueberries or blueberry leaf extracts might increase the risk of hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.  Details Animal and in vitro research suggests that blueberry and/or blueberry leaf extracts can lower blood glucose levels (909,36743,36759).

BUSPIRONE (BuSpar) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, blueberry juice might increase blood levels of buspirone.  Details In vitro research shows that blueberry juice can inhibit the metabolism of buspirone, possibly by inhibiting cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) enzymes. However, pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that drinking 300 mL of blueberry juice 30 minutes before taking buspirone hydrochloride 10 mg does not significantly affect the concentration or clearance of buspirone (92385).

FLURBIPROFEN (Ansaid, others) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, blueberry juice might increase blood levels of flurbiprofen.  Details In vitro research shows that blueberry juice can inhibit the metabolism of flurbiprofen, possibly by inhibiting cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) enzymes. However, pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that drinking 300 mL of blueberry juice 30 minutes before taking flurbiprofen 100 mg does not significantly affect the concentration or clearance of flurbiprofen (92385).

(Read more about BLUEBERRY)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, spirulina blue-green algae might increase the risk of bleeding if used with other anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs. However, this is unlikely.  Details Spirulina blue-green algae have shown antiplatelet and anticoagulant effects in vitro (18311,18312,75892,92162,92163). However, one preliminary study in 24 patients receiving spirulina blue-green algae 2.3 grams daily for 2 weeks showed no effect on platelet activation or measures of clotting time (97202).

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, taking blue-green algae with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.  Details Human research shows that spirulina blue-green algae can have hypoglycemic effects in patients with diabetes, at least some of whom were using antidiabetes drugs (18299). However, blue-green algae does not seem to improve glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels in patients with diabetes (102689,109970). A meta-analysis of animal studies also suggests that spirulina blue-green algae have hypoglycemic effects (109970).

IMMUNOSUPPRESSANTS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, concurrent use of blue-green algae might interfere with immunosuppressive therapy.  Details Blue-green algae have been shown to stimulate the immune system (2534,10267).

(Read more about BLUE-GREEN ALGAE)

CYTOCHROME P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, broccoli might reduce the levels and effects of drugs metabolized by CYP1A2.  Details Pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that eating 500 grams of fresh broccoli daily for 6-12 days can increase CYP1A2 activity by 10% to 200% (19608,95722). Induction of CYP1A2 activity by broccoli is attributed to its glucosinolate constituents (19608).

CYTOCHROME P450 2A6 (CYP2A6) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, broccoli might reduce the levels and effects of drugs metabolized by CYP2A6.  Details Pharmacokinetic research in humans shows that eating 500 grams of broccoli daily for 6 days increases CYP2A6 activity by 135% to 550%. Induction of CYP2A6 activity is attributed to its glucosinolate constituents (19608).

(Read more about BROCCOLI)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking burdock with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs might increase the risk of bleeding.  Details In vitro research shows that lignans from burdock reduce rabbit platelet aggregation by inhibiting platelet activating factor (12619). This interaction has not been reported in humans.

(Read more about BURDOCK)

ALUMINUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium citrate might increase aluminum absorption and toxicity. Other types of calcium do not increase aluminum absorption.  Details Calcium citrate can increase the absorption of aluminum when taken with aluminum hydroxide. The increase in aluminum levels may become toxic, particularly in individuals with kidney disease (21631). However, the effect of calcium citrate on aluminum absorption is due to the citrate anion rather than calcium cation. Calcium acetate does not appear to increase aluminum absorption (93006).

BISPHOSPHONATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = C Calcium reduces the absorption of bisphosphonates.  Details Advise patients to take bisphosphonates at least 30 minutes before calcium, but preferably at a different time of day. Calcium supplements decrease absorption of bisphosphonates (12937).

CALCIPOTRIENE (Dovonex) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Taking calcipotriene with calcium might increase the risk for hypercalcemia.  Details Calcipotriene is a vitamin D analog used topically for psoriasis. It can be absorbed in sufficient amounts to cause systemic effects, including hypercalcemia (12938). Theoretically, combining calcipotriene with calcium supplements might increase the risk of hypercalcemia.

CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Intravenous calcium may decrease the effects of calcium channel blockers; oral calcium is unlikely to have this effect.  Details Intravenous calcium is used to decrease the effects of calcium channel blockers in the management of overdose. Intravenous calcium gluconate has been used before intravenous verapamil (Isoptin) to prevent or reduce the hypotensive effects without affecting the antiarrhythmic effects (6124). But there is no evidence that dietary or supplemental calcium when taken orally interacts with calcium channel blockers (12939,12947).

CEFTRIAXONE (Rocephin) Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Co-administration of intravenous calcium and ceftriaxone can result in precipitation of a ceftriaxone-calcium salt in the lungs and kidneys.  Details Avoid administering intravenous calcium in any form, such as parenteral nutrition or Lactated Ringers, within 48 hours of intravenous ceftriaxone. Case reports in neonates show that administering intravenous ceftriaxone and calcium can result in precipitation of a ceftriaxone-calcium salt in the lungs and kidneys. In several cases, neonates have died as a result of this interaction (15794,21632). So far there are no reports in adults; however, there is still concern that this interaction might occur in adults.

DIGOXIN (Lanoxin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Using intravenous calcium with digoxin might increase the risk of fatal cardiac arrhythmias.  Details Hypercalcemia increases the risk of fatal cardiac arrhythmias with digoxin (12940). However, one retrospective analysis of clinical data suggests that intravenous calcium does not increase the risk of dysrhythmias or mortality in patients receiving digoxin (38960).

DILTIAZEM (Cardizem, others) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, calcium may reduce the therapeutic effects of diltiazem.  Details Hypercalcemia can reduce the effectiveness of verapamil in atrial fibrillation (10574). Theoretically, calcium might increase this risk of hypercalcemia and reduce the effectiveness of diltiazem.

DOLUTEGRAVIR (Tivicay) Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce levels of dolutegravir.  Details Advise patients to take dolutegravir either 2 hours before or 6 hours after taking calcium supplements. Pharmacokinetic research suggests that taking calcium carbonate 1200 mg concomitantly with dolutegravir 50 mg reduces plasma levels of dolutegravir by almost 40%. Calcium appears to decrease levels of dolutegravir through chelation (93578).

ELVITEGRAVIR (Vitekta) Interaction Rating = Major Do not take this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce levels of elvitegravir.  Details Advise patients to take elvitegravir either 2 hours before or 2 hours after taking calcium supplements. Pharmacokinetic research suggests that taking calcium along with elvitegravir can reduce blood levels of elvitegravir through chelation (94166).

LEVOTHYROXINE (Synthroid, others) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce the absorption and effectiveness of levothyroxine.  Details Advise patients to take levothyroxine and calcium supplements at least 4 hours apart. Calcium reduces levothyroxine absorption, probably by forming insoluble complexes (5082). Calcium carbonate supplements reduce effectiveness of levothyroxine in patients with hypothyroidism (5081,5082,6137).

LITHIUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, concomitant use of calcium and lithium may increase this risk of hypercalcemia.  Details Clinical research suggests that long-term use of lithium may cause hypercalcemia in 10% to 60% of patients (38953). Theoretically, concomitant use of lithium and calcium supplements may further increase this risk.

QUINOLONE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce the absorption of quinolone antibiotics.  Details Advise patients to take oral quinolones at least 2 hours before or 4-6 hours after calcium supplements or calcium-fortified foods. Taking calcium at the same time as oral quinolones can reduce quinolone absorption. Calcium binds to quinolones in the gut (4412,10339,21638,38570).

RALTEGRAVIR (Isentress) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium may reduce levels of raltegravir.  Details Pharmacokinetic research shows that taking a single dose of calcium carbonate 3000 mg along with raltegravir 400 mg twice daily modestly decreases the mean area under the curve of raltegravir, but the decrease does not necessitate a dose adjustment of raltegravir (94164). However, a case of elevated HIV-1 RNA levels and documented resistance to raltegravir has been reported for a patient taking calcium carbonate 1 gram three times daily plus vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) 400 IU three times daily in combination with raltegravir 400 mg twice daily for 11 months. It is thought that calcium reduced raltegravir levels by chelation, leading to treatment failure (94165).

SOTALOL (Betapace) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Calcium seems to reduce the absorption of sotalol.  Details Advise patients to separate doses by at least 2 hours before or 4-6 hours after calcium. Calcium appears to reduce the absorption of sotalol, probably by forming insoluble complexes (10018).

TETRACYCLINE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = C Calcium seems to reduce the absorption of tetracycline antibiotics.  Details Advise patients to take oral tetracyclines at least 2 hours before, or 4-6 hours after calcium supplements. Taking calcium at the same time as oral tetracyclines can reduce tetracycline absorption. Calcium binds to tetracyclines in the gut (1843).

THIAZIDE DIURETICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = C Taking calcium along with thiazides might increase the risk of hypercalcemia and renal failure.  Details Thiazides reduce calcium excretion by the kidneys (1902). Using thiazides along with moderately large amounts of calcium carbonate increases the risk of milk-alkali syndrome (hypercalcemia, metabolic alkalosis, renal failure). Patients may need to have their serum calcium levels and/or parathyroid function monitored regularly.

VERAPAMIL (Calan, others) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, calcium may reduce the therapeutic effects of verapamil.  Details Hypercalcemia can reduce the effectiveness of verapamil in atrial fibrillation (10574). Theoretically, use of calcium supplements may increase this risk of hypercalcemia and reduce the effectiveness of verapamil.

(Read more about CALCIUM)

(Read more about CAMU CAMU)

(Read more about CARROT)

PHOTOSENSITIZING DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, chlorella might have additive effects with photosensitizing drugs.  Details Chlorella has been reported to cause photosensitization (3900,5852). In five case reports, patients who had ingested chlorella exhibited swelling followed by erythematopurpuric lesions on sun-exposed areas of the body (5852). Theoretically, concomitant use with photosensitizing drugs may exacerbate effects.

WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, chlorella might reduce the clinical effects of warfarin.  Details Chlorella contains significant amounts of vitamin K. There is at least one case report of warfarin therapy becoming sub-therapeutic after initiation of chlorella supplements (3900,41830).

(Read more about CHLORELLA)

(Read more about COLLARD)

ATORVASTATIN (Lipitor) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, cranberry might increase levels and adverse effects of atorvastatin.  Details In one case report, a patient taking atorvastatin experienced upper back pain, rhabdomyolysis, and abnormal liver function after drinking cranberry juice 16 ounces daily for 2 weeks. Theoretically, this may have been caused by inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) enzymes by cranberry juice, as atorvastatin is a CYP3A4 substrate. Creatinine kinase and liver enzymes normalized within 2 weeks of stopping cranberry juice (90042). Patients taking atorvastatin should avoid large quantities of cranberry juice.

CYTOCHROME P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, cranberry might increase the levels and adverse effects of CYP2C9 substrates. However, research is conflicting.  Details There is contradictory evidence about the effect of cranberry on CYP2C9 enzymes. In vitro evidence suggests that flavonoids in cranberry inhibit CYP2C9 enzymes (10452,11115,90048). However, clinical research shows that cranberry juice does not significantly affect the levels, metabolism, or elimination of the CYP2C9 substrates flurbiprofen or diclofenac (11094,90048). Also, in patients stabilized on warfarin, drinking cranberry juice 250 mL daily for 7 days does not significantly increase the anticoagulant activity of warfarin, a CYP2C9 substrate (15374). Additional pharmacokinetic research shows that cranberry juice does not increase peak plasma concentrations or area under the concentration-time curve of warfarin (15393).

CYTOCHROME P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, cranberry might increase the levels and adverse effects of CYP3A4 substrates.  Details A case of upper back pain, rhabdomyolysis, and abnormal liver function has been reported for a patient taking atorvastatin, a CYP3A4 substrate, in combination with cranberry juice 16 ounces daily for 2 weeks. Creatinine kinase and liver enzymes normalized within 2 weeks of stopping cranberry juice (90042). Also, animal research suggests that cranberry juice, administered intraduodenally 30 minutes prior to nifedipine, a CYP3A4 substrate, inhibits nifedipine metabolism and increases the area under the concentration-time curve by 1.6-fold compared to control (46420).

DICLOFENAC (Voltaren, others) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, cranberry might modestly increase the levels and adverse effects of diclofenac.  Details In vitro evidence suggests that cranberry juice inhibits diclofenac metabolism by human liver microsomes (90048). However, drinking cranberry juice does not seem to affect diclofenac metabolism in humans (90048).

NIFEDIPINE (Procardia) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, cranberry might increase the levels and adverse effects of nifedipine.  Details Animal research suggests that cranberry juice, administered intraduodenally 30 minutes prior to nifedipine treatment, inhibits nifedipine metabolism and increases the area under the concentration-time curve by 1.6-fold compared to control (46420). This interaction has not been reported in humans.

WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, cranberry might increase the levels and adverse effects of warfarin. However, research is conflicting.  Details There is contradictory evidence about the effect of cranberry juice on warfarin. Case reports have linked cranberry juice consumption to increases in the international normalized ratio (INR) in patients taking warfarin, resulting in severe spontaneous bleeding and excessive postoperative bleeding (10452,12189,12668,21187,21188,21189,46378,46396,46411)(46415,90043). Daily consumption of cranberry sauce for one week has also been linked to an increase in INR in one case report (16816). In a small study in healthy young males, taking a high dose of 3 grams of cranberry juice concentrate capsules, equivalent to 57 grams of fruit daily, for 2 weeks produced a 30% increase in the area under the INR-time curve after a single 25-mg dose of warfarin (16416). However, 3 very small clinical studies in patients stabilized on warfarin reported that cranberry juice 250 mL once or twice daily for 7 days (27% cranberry juice or pure cranberry juice) or 240 mL once daily for 14 days does not significantly increase INR or affect plasma warfarin levels (15374,17124,90045). The reasons for these discrepant findings are unclear. It is possible that the form and dose of cranberry may play a role, as cranberry extracts and juices contain different constituents. Additionally, an in vitro study evaluating 5 different cranberry juices found varying effects, with only a cranberry concentrate, and not diluted cranberry juices, inhibiting CYP2C9. However, this concentrate did not inhibit CYP2C9 activity in humans (108062).

(Read more about CRANBERRY)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, grape extracts may have antiplatelet effects and may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details In vitro evidence suggests that grape extracts might decrease platelet aggregation (53017,53087).

CYCLOSPORINE (Neoral, Sandimmune) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Ingesting grape juice with cyclosporine can reduce cyclosporine absorption.  Details A small pharmacokinetic study in healthy young adults shows that intake of purple grape juice 200 mL along with cyclosporine can decrease the absorption of cyclosporine by up to 30% when compared with water (53177). Separate doses of grape juice and cyclosporine by at least 2 hours to avoid this interaction.

CYTOCHROME P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, grape juice might reduce the levels of CYP1A2 substrates.  Details A small pharmacokinetic study in healthy adults shows that ingestion of 200 mL of grape juice decreases phenacetin plasma levels. This is thought to be due to induction of CYP1A2 (2539).

CYTOCHROME P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D It is unclear if grape juice or grape seed extract inhibits CYP2C9; research is conflicting.  Details In vitro evidence shows that grape seed extract or grape juice might inhibit CYP2C9 enzymes (11094,53011,53089). However, a small pharmacokinetic study in healthy adults shows that drinking 8 ounces of grape juice once does not affect the clearance of flurbiprofen, a probe-drug for CYP2C9 metabolism (11094). The effects of continued grape juice consumption are unclear.

CYTOCHROME P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, grape seed extract may increase the levels of CYP2D6 substrates.  Details In vitro evidence suggests that grape seed extract might inhibit CYP2D6 enzymes (53011). However, this interaction has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, grape seed extract might increase the levels of CYP2E1 substrates.  Details In vitro and animal research suggests that grape seed proanthocyanidin extract inhibits CYP2E1 enzymes (52949). However, this interaction has not been reported in humans.

CYTOCHROME P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D It is unclear if grape seed extract inhibits or induces CYP3A4; research is conflicting.  Details In vitro evidence suggests that grape seed extract might inhibit CYP3A4 enzymes (53089). However, evidence from animal research shows that grape seed extract may induce CYP3A4 in the liver (53011). So far, these interactions have not been reported in humans.

MIDAZOLAM (Versed) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, long-term intake of grape seed extract might decrease the effects of midazolam.  Details Animal research shows that subchronic ingestions of grape seed extract can increase the elimination of intravenous midazolam by increasing hepatic CYP3A4 activity. Single doses of grape seed extract do not appear to affect midazolam elimination (53011).

PHENACETIN Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Grape juice might decrease phenacetin absorption.  Details A small pharmacokinetic study in healthy adults shows that ingestion of 200 mL of grape juice decreases phenacetin plasma levels. This is thought to be due to induction of cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) (2539).

(Read more about GRAPE)

BISPHOSPHONATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Iron reduces the absorption of bisphosphonates.  Details Advise patients that doses of bisphosphonates should be separated by at least two hours from doses of all other medications, including supplements such as iron. Divalent cations, including iron, can decrease absorption of bisphosphonates by forming insoluble complexes in the gastrointestinal tract (15).

CHLORAMPHENICOL Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking chloramphenicol with iron might reduce the response to iron therapy in iron deficiency anemia.  Details Chloramphenicol interferes with erythrocyte maturation (15,3046). However, since chloramphenicol isn't usually taken for prolonged periods, this isn't likely to be clinically significant.

DOLUTEGRAVIR (Tivicay) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Iron might decrease dolutegravir levels by reducing its absorption.  Details Advise patients to take dolutegravir at least 2 hours before or 6 hours after taking iron. Pharmacokinetic research shows that iron can decrease the absorption of dolutegravir from the gastrointestinal tract through chelation (93578). When taken under fasting conditions, a single dose of ferrous fumarate 324 mg orally along with dolutegravir 50 mg reduces overall exposure to dolutegravir by 54% (94190).

INTEGRASE INHIBITORS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking iron along with integrase inhibitors might decrease the levels and clinical effects of these drugs.  Details Iron is a divalent cation. There is concern that iron may decrease the absorption of integrase inhibitors from the gastrointestinal tract through chelation (93578). One pharmacokinetic study shows that iron can decrease blood levels of the specific integrase inhibitor dolutegravir through chelation (94190). Also, other pharmacokinetic research shows that other divalent cations such as calcium can decrease the absorption and levels of some integrase inhibitors through chelation (93578,93579).

LEVODOPA Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Iron might decrease levodopa levels by reducing its absorption.  Details Advise patients to separate doses of levodopa and iron as much as possible. There is some evidence in healthy people that iron forms chelates with levodopa, reducing the amount of levodopa absorbed by around 50% (9567). The clinical significance of this hasn't been determined.

LEVOTHYROXINE (Synthroid, others) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Iron might decrease levothyroxine levels by reducing its absorption.  Details Advise patients to separate levothyroxine and iron doses by at least 2 hours. Iron can decrease the absorption and efficacy of levothyroxine by forming insoluble complexes in the gastrointestinal tract (9568).

METHYLDOPA (Aldomet) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Iron might decrease methyldopa levels by reducing its absorption.  Details Advise patients to separate methyldopa and iron doses by at least 2 hours. Iron can decrease the absorption of methyldopa from the gastrointestinal tract through chelation, resulting in increases in blood pressure (7900,20151).

MYCOPHENOLATE MOFETIL (CellCept) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, iron might decrease mycophenolate mofetil levels by reducing its absorption.  Details Advise patients to take iron 4-6 hours before, or 2 hours after, mycophenolate mofetil. It has been suggested that a decrease of absorption is possible, probably by forming nonabsorbable chelates. However, mycophenolate pharmacokinetics are not affected by iron supplementation in available clinical research (3046,20152,20153,20154,20155).

PENICILLAMINE (Cuprimine, Depen) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Iron might decrease penicillamine levels by reducing its absorption.  Details Advise patients to separate penicillamine and iron doses by at least 2 hours. Oral iron supplements can reduce absorption of penicillamine by 30% to 70%, probably due to chelate formation. In people with Wilson's disease, this interaction has led to reduced efficacy of penicillamine (3046,3072,20156).

QUINOLONE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Iron might decrease levels of quinolone antibiotics by reducing their absorption.  Details Advise patients to separate quinolone antibiotics and iron doses by at least 2 hours. Iron decreases the absorption of quinolones due to formation of insoluble complexes in the gastrointestinal tract (15,3072).

TETRACYCLINE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = D Iron might decrease levels of tetracycline antibiotics by reducing their absorption.  Details Advise patients to take iron at least 2 hours before or 4 hours after tetracycline antibiotics. Concomitant use can decrease absorption of tetracycline antibiotics from the gastrointestinal tract by 50% to 90% (15).

(Read more about IRON)

(Read more about KALE)

(Read more about LIPASE)

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, parsley might increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.  Details Animal research suggests that parsley has antiplatelet effects (68209).

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, parsley might increase the risk of hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetes drugs.  Details Animal research suggests that parsley might decrease blood glucose (13174,68131,68153,68162). Monitor blood glucose levels closely. Dose adjustments might be necessary.

ASPIRIN Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Unlikely •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, aspirin might increase the severity of allergic reactions to parsley.  Details In one case, severe urticaria and swelling were reported after taking aspirin with parsley in an individual with a known mild parsley allergy (5054).

CYTOCHROME P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, parsley might increase serum levels of CYP1A2 substrates.  Details Laboratory research suggests that parsley can inhibit CYP1A2 (68176).

DIURETIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, parsley might enhance or interfere with the effects of diuretic drugs.  Details Animal research suggests that parsley seed extract increases urine elimination (68119). Parsley leaf and root might also interfere with diuretic therapy due their purported aquaretic effects (512).

PENTOBARBITAL (Nembutal) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, parsley might increase the duration of pentobarbital effects.  Details Animal research suggests that parsley juice prolongs the action of pentobarbital, perhaps by decreasing cytochrome P450 levels (25362). It is not known if this occurs in humans or if this applies to other barbiturates or sedatives.

SIROLIMUS (Rapamune) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, large quantities of parsley might increase sirolimus levels.  Details In one case report, an adult female with a history of kidney transplant presented with elevated blood sirolimus levels, approximately 4-7 times greater than previous measures, after daily consumption of a juice containing approximately 30 grams of parsley for 7 days. Sirolimus levels returned to normal a week after the parsley juice was discontinued (106010).

WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, large amounts of parsley leaf and root might decrease the effects of warfarin.  Details Parlsey contains vitamin K (19).

(Read more about PARSLEY)

ACE INHIBITORS (ACEIs) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Likely •  Level of Evidence = C Using ACEIs with high doses of potassium increases the risk of hyperkalemia.  Details ACEIs block the actions of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and reduce potassium excretion (95628). Concomitant use of these drugs with potassium supplements increases the risk of hyperkalemia (15,23207). However, concomitant use of these drugs with moderate dietary potassium intake (about 3775-5200 mg daily) does not increase serum potassium levels (95628).

ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR BLOCKERS (ARBs) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Likely •  Level of Evidence = C Using ARBs with high doses of potassium increases the risk of hyperkalemia.  Details ARBs block the actions of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and reduce potassium excretion (95628). Concomitant use of these drugs with potassium supplements increases the risk of hyperkalemia (15,23207). However, concomitant use of these drugs with moderate dietary potassium intake (about 3775-5200 mg daily) does not increase serum potassium levels (95628).

POTASSIUM-SPARING DIURETICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Likely •  Level of Evidence = C Concomitant use increases the risk of hyperkalemia.  Details Using potassium-sparing diuretics with potassium supplements increases the risk of hyperkalemia (15).

(Read more about POTASSIUM)

(Read more about PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES (PROTEASES))

ANTICOAGULANT/ANTIPLATELET DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking red raspberry leaf with anticoagulant/antiplatelet drugs might increase the risk of bleeding.  Details In vitro research suggests that red raspberry leaf extract has antiplatelet activity and enhances the in vitro effects of the antiplatelet medication cangrelor (96300). This interaction has not been reported in humans.

INSULIN Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Red raspberry leaf might reduce glucose levels in patients being treated with insulin.  Details In one case report, a 38-year-old patient with gestational diabetes, whose blood glucose was being controlled with medical nutrition therapy and insulin, developed hypoglycemia after consuming two servings of raspberry leaf tea daily for 3 days beginning at 32 weeks' gestation. The patient required an insulin dose reduction. The hypoglycemia was considered to be probably related to use of red raspberry leaf tea (96299).

(Read more about RED RASPBERRY)

WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Spinach contains vitamin K, which can interfere with the activity of warfarin.  Details In human research, although eating spinach with one meal does not result in coagulation test results outside the therapeutic range, daily consumption for one week necessitates dose adjustment of warfarin (19600). Individuals using anticoagulants should consume a consistent daily amount of spinach to maintain the effect of anticoagulant therapy (19).

(Read more about SPINACH)

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, stinging nettle might have additive effects with antidiabetes drugs.  Details Clinical research shows that stinging nettle might decrease blood glucose levels in patients with diabetes (91519,102865).

DIURETIC DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, combining stinging nettle with diuretic drugs may have additive effects.  Details Animal research suggests that the above ground parts and roots of stinging nettle may have a diuretic effect (1,4,11,76402).

LITHIUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, stinging nettle might reduce excretion and increase levels of lithium.  Details Animal research suggests that stinging nettle has diuretic and natriuretic properties, which could alter the excretion of lithium (76402). The dose of lithium might need to be decreased.

WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D There is some concern that stinging nettle might decrease the effects of anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin.  Details Stinging nettle contains a significant amount of vitamin K (19). When taken in large quantities, this might interfere with the activity of warfarin.

(Read more about STINGING NETTLE)

(Read more about TOMATO)

ANTIDIABETES DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking wheatgrass with antidiabetes drugs might lower blood glucose levels and increase the risk of hypoglycemia.  Details Animal research shows that taking wheatgrass stimulates the release of insulin from beta-cells and lowers blood glucose (93018,93019).

CYTOCHROME P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) SUBSTRATES Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, wheatgrass might decrease the levels and clinical effects of CYP1A2 substrates.  Details In vitro research shows that wheatgrass induces CYP1A2 enzymes (111404).

(Read more about WHEATGRASS)

General ...Orally, apple fruit is well tolerated. Apple seeds, which contain cyanide, may cause serious adverse effects when consumed in large amounts.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Bloating, flatulence.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis. Ingestion of large amounts of apple seeds may cause cyanide poisoning, leading to death.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, apple products, including whole apples, apple puree, and apple juice, may cause bloating and flatulence in some people (104184).

Immunologic ...Patients allergic to other fruits in the Rosaceae family, including apricot, almond, plum, peach, pear, and strawberry, can also be allergic to apples (7129). Rarely, the allergy has resulted in anaphylaxis (94425).

Other ...Orally, ingestion of large amounts of apple seeds, which contain hydrogen cyanide (HCN), may cause cyanide poisoning, leading to death. One death is attributed to ingestion of a cupful of apple seeds. To release cyanide, seeds must be hydrolyzed in the stomach, and several hours may elapse before poisoning symptoms occur (6).

(Read more about APPLE)

General ...Orally, barley is well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal distension, bloating, flatulence, unpleasant taste. Allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
Topically: Allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.

Dermatologic ...Topically, barley malt contained in beer has been reported to cause contact dermatitis (33762). After occupational exposure, barley has been reported to cause contact dermatitis of the eyelids and extremities, as well as contact urticaria (33735,33770,33774).

Gastrointestinal ...When consumed orally, barley provides fiber. Increasing fiber in the diet can cause flatulence, bloating, abdominal distention, and unpleasant taste. To minimize side effects, doses should be slowly titrated to the desired level. Adverse effects usually subside with continued use (12514).
Barley contains gluten. In patients with biopsy-proven celiac disease, consuming barley can cause gastrointestinal upset and impairment of xylose excretion (33763,33772).

Immunologic ...Orally, consumption of beer has been reported to cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals (33722,33724). Symptoms included tingling in the face, lip, and tongue, angioedema, generalized urticaria, chest tightness, dyspnea, cough, fainting, and rhinoconjunctivitis. It can also cause anaphylaxis in sensitive individuals (317). Topically and with occupational exposure, barley has been reported to cause contact dermatitis and rash (33762,33735,33770,33774).
"Bakers' asthma" is an allergic response resulting from the inhalation of cereal flours by workers in the baking and milling industries, and has been reported to occur after barley flour exposure (1300,33756,33760). Cross-allergenicity has been shown to exist between different cereals (33758).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ..."Bakers' asthma" is an allergic response resulting from the inhalation of cereal flours by workers in the baking and milling industries, and has been reported to occur after barley flour exposure (1300,33756,33760). Cross-allergenicity has been shown to exist between different cereals (33758).
By inhalation, barley flours may be a source of allergens in asthma (33764,33773). Inhalation of wild barley grass pollen may result in bronchial irritation or pneumonitis (33726,33755).

(Read more about BARLEY)

General ...Orally, beet seems to be well tolerated when used for medicinal purposes, short term.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Red stools and red urine.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Hypocalcemia and kidney damage when ingested in large amounts.

Endocrine ...Theoretically, ingestion of large quantities of beets could lead to hypocalcemia because of the oxaluric acid content (18).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, beet juice may cause red stools (94470,97726,100142,100145,105762). This red coloring of the stools is not harmful. Additionally, beet supplementation has been reported to cause black stools. In one case, a 79-year-old male on apixaban and clopidogrel presented with black stools, nausea, and vomiting after taking beet pills 2-3 days prior. The likelihood of upper gastrointestinal bleed was determined to be low based on factors such as normal vital signs and lack of severe anemia. The patient was diagnosed with beet-induced pseudo-hematochezia which was successfully treated with fluids and discontinuation of the beet supplement (113426).
Other less common gastrointestinal side effects include loose stools, constipation, and nausea (100149).

Genitourinary ...Orally, beet is known to produce red or pink urine (beeturia) in some people (32569,34134,94464,94470,97725,97726,100142,100145,100152,105762,113422). However, this red coloring of the urine is not harmful and dissipates after about 12 hours (113422).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, vivid dreams and worsening headaches have each occurred in one person in a clinical trial, although it is not clear if this is due to beet (97723).

Renal ...Theoretically, ingestion of large quantities of beets could lead to kidney damage due to its oxaluric acid content (18).

(Read more about BEET)

General ...Orally, blueberry is generally well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Constipation, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting with freeze-dried blueberries.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, freeze-dried blueberries may cause constipation, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. In one clinical trial, 26% of patients taking freeze-dried blueberries 50 grams daily dropped out in the first week of the study due to gastrointestinal complaints (107278).

(Read more about BLUEBERRY)

General ...Orally, spirulina blue-green algae seem to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal cramps, bloating, diarrhea, dizziness, fatigue, flatulence, headache, nausea, and vomiting.

Dermatologic ...Orally, a severe rash has been reported in a 49-year-old woman after taking a spirulina blue-green algae supplement (species and dose unknown). After stopping the supplement, inflammatory myopathy with muscle weakness and elevated creatine kinase occurred. The condition resolved with corticosteroid and cyclophosphamide treatment (75936). In another case report, an 82 year-old woman developed a blistering skin condition over a 2-year period while taking spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis, dose unknown). She had partly hemorrhagic bullae, secreting erosions and macerations. These symptoms resolved when the supplement was stopped and the patient was treated with oral prednisone, topical silver sulfadiazine, and topical triamcinolone / neomycin (75921).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, gastrointestinal complaints are amongst the most common adverse effects associated with spirulina blue-green algae, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps (19272,75924,91713,109969). Similarly, common adverse effects associated with the blue-green algae species Aphanizomenon flos-aquae are stomach upset, flatulence, diarrhea, and bloating (14842).

Hematologic ...Orally, three cases of mild gum bleeding and one case of mild bruising have been reported in patients taking spirulina blue-green algae (Cyactiv, Cerule LLC) 2. 3 grams daily (containing approximately 1 gram of phycocanin) for 2 weeks (97202).

Hepatic ...Orally, significant elevations of liver function tests within 2 weeks of starting a spirulina blue-green algae supplement (species and dose unknown) have been reported in a 52-year-old man stabilized on amlodipine, simvastatin, and acarbose. A biopsy showed feathery degeneration and ballooning of hepatic cells. Cholestasis was present, and an ex-vivo lymphocyte stimulation test for spirulina blue-green algae was positive. All drugs and the spirulina blue-green algae supplement were stopped, with return of the LFTs to normal (9172).

Immunologic ...Orally, urticarial rashes and pruritus have occurred as part of generalized allergic reactions to blue-green algae (91706,91711,91712).
In one case report, a 14-year-old male experienced anaphylaxis with urticaria, lip edema, and asthma 6 hours after taking five tablets of spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis, strength unknown). He had a positive skin prick test. Oral challenge to an extract of the tablets, and IgE from his serum, reacted with the beta chain of C-phycocyanin from A. platensis (91712).
In another case report, a 17-year-old male with a history of multiple allergies developed rash, pruritus, angioedema, wheezing, and dyspnea within 10 minutes of taking spirulina blue-green algae (A. platensis) 300 mg. He had a positive skin test to A. platensis but no other ingredients of the tablets (91706).

Musculoskeletal ...Orally, after a 49-year-old woman stopped taking a spirulina blue-green algae supplement (species and dose unknown), the patient experienced inflammatory myopathy with muscle weakness and elevated creatine kinase. The condition resolved with corticosteroid and cyclophosphamide treatment (75936). Another case report describes acute rhabdomyolysis that occurred after consumption of spirulina (Arthrospira platensis, Hawaiian spirulina, Solgar Inc., Leonia, NJ) 3 grams daily for 1 month. The 24-year old man presented with weakness, myalgias, elevated creatine kinase and liver function tests, and myoglobinuria (75922).

(Read more about BLUE-GREEN ALGAE)

General ...Broccoli is well tolerated when consumed as food. A thorough evaluation of safety outcomes when broccoli is taken as medicine has not been conducted.

Dermatologic ...Topically, allergic reactions to broccoli have caused contact dermatitis (14158).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, loose stools, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and abdominal cramping have been reported following intake of broccoli seed and sprout extracts, particularly at high doses (114753).

Hepatic ...In one case report, a 56-year-old adult developed elevated transaminases, with alanine aminotransferase (ALT) 5. 8 times above normal, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) 2.4 times above normal, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) 5.1 times above normal. This was thought to be related to the consumption of 800 mL of broccoli juice daily over a 4-week period. Values returned to normal 15 days after cessation of juice consumption (96191).

Immunologic ...Topically, allergic reactions to broccoli have caused contact dermatitis (14158).

(Read more about BROCCOLI)

General ...Orally, burdock is well tolerated when consumed as a food. Although a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes is lacking, there has been long-standing historical use of burdock with few noted adverse effects.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
All ROAs: Allergic reactions, including contact dermatitis and anaphylaxis.

Dermatologic ...Contact dermatitis has been reported secondary to burdock, especially after prolonged use of the root oil (37422). There are cases of allergic dermatitis secondary to using burdock plasters. Two males and a 14 year-old female developed erythematous and vesicular, pruritic, and exudative reactions in areas corresponding to the application of burdock root plasters (12667). Reactions occurred up to 7 days after initial use. Patch testing was positive for burdock sensitivity in all three patients and was nonreactive in matched controls.

Hematologic ...In one case report, a 38-year-old female developed immune-mediated thrombocytopenia after consuming a "cleansing" tea containing unknown amounts of burdock and yellow dock. The patient presented with bruising, mild weakness, and fatigue, which started 2-3 days after consuming the tea, and was found to have a platelet count of 5,000 per mcL. Symptoms resolved after platelet transfusion and treatment with oral dexamethasone (108971). It is unclear if these effects were caused by burdock, yellow dock, the combination, or other contributing factors.

Hepatic ...A case of idiosyncratic drug-induced liver disease (DILI) is reported in a 36-year-old female who presented with abdominal pain after 1 month of taking an herbal liver detox tea containing burdock and other ingredients. Remarkable laboratory values included elevated liver enzymes, alkaline phosphatase, and total bilirubin. The patient received a loading dose of N-acetylcysteine and was hospitalized for 12 days (112178). However, it is unclear if the adverse effect was due to burdock, other ingredients, or the combination.

Immunologic ...There is one case of anaphylactic shock secondary to eating boiled burdock. One hour after eating boiled burdock the patient presented with redness over the entire body and dyspnea. He was found to have low blood pressure and was treated with subcutaneous epinephrine 1 mg and intravenous lactated ringer's solution containing hydrocortisone 100 mg and dexamethasone 8 mg. The cause of anaphylactic shock was attributed to allergenicity to burdock based on positive skin prick test results. Previously, the patient had experienced urticaria after eating boiled burdock (12660).

Neurologic/CNS ...Anticholinergic reactions including dry mouth, dizziness, blurred vision, weakness, dilated pupils, inability to urinate, and bradycardia have been reported following the consumption of burdock products (12662,37421,37431,37434,37435). However, these anticholinergic reactions are believed result from contamination of burdock with belladonna alkaloids. Burdock itself does not contain atropine or other constituents that would be responsible for these reactions.

(Read more about BURDOCK)

General ...Orally and intravenously, calcium is well-tolerated when used appropriately.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Belching, constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, and stomach upset.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Case reports have raised concerns about calciphylaxis and kidney stones.

Cardiovascular ...There has been concern that calcium intake may be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and coronary heart disease (CHD), including myocardial infarction (MI). Some clinical research suggests that calcium intake, often in amounts over the recommended daily intake level of 1000-1300 mg daily for adults, is associated with an increased risk of CVD, CHD, and MI (16118,17482,91350,107233). However, these results, particularly meta-analyses, have been criticized for excluding trials in which calcium was administered with vitamin D (94137). Many of these trials also only included postmenopausal females. Other analyses report conflicting results, and have not shown that calcium intake affects the risk of CVD, CHD, or MI (92994,93533,97308,107231). Reasons for these discrepancies are not entirely clear. It may relate to whether calcium is taken as monotherapy or in combination with vitamin D. When taken with vitamin D, which is commonly recommended, calcium supplementation does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of CVD, CHD, or MI (93533,107231). Also, the association between calcium supplementation and CVD, CHD, or MI risk may be influenced by the amount of calcium consumed as part of the diet. Supplementation with calcium may be associated with an increased risk of MI in people with dietary calcium intake above 805 mg daily, but not in those with dietary calcium intake below 805 mg daily (17482). To minimize the possible risk of CVD, CHD, or MI, advise patients not to consume more than the recommended daily intake of 1000-1200 mg and to consider total calcium intake from both dietary and supplemental sources (17484). While dietary intake of calcium is preferred over supplemental intake, advise patients who require calcium supplements to take calcium along with vitamin D, as this combination does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of MI (93533).
Rarely, calcium intake can increase the risk of calciphylaxis, which usually occurs in patients with kidney failure. Calciphylaxis is the deposition of calcium phosphate in arterioles, which causes skin ulcers and skin necrosis. In a case report, a 64-year-old female with a history of neck fracture, sepsis, and ischemic colitis presented with painful leg ulcers due to calciphylaxis. She discontinued calcium and vitamin D supplementation and was treated with sodium thiosulfate and supportive care (95816).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, calcium can cause belching, flatulence, nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, and diarrhea (1824,1843,12950,38803). Although constipation is frequently cited as an adverse effect of calcium, there is no scientific substantiation of this side effect (1824,1843,1844,1845,12950,38978). Calcium carbonate has been reported to cause acid rebound, but this is controversial (12935,12936).

Oncologic ...There is some concern that very high doses of calcium might increase the risk of prostate cancer. Some epidemiological evidence suggests that consuming over 2000 mg/day of dietary calcium might increase the risk for prostate cancer (4825,12949). Additional research suggests that calcium intake over 1500 mg/day might increase the risk of advanced prostate cancer and prostate cancer mortality (14132). Consumption of dairy products has also been weakly linked to a small increase in prostate cancer risk (98894). However, contradictory research suggests no association between dietary intake of calcium and overall prostate cancer risk (14131,14132,104630). More evidence is needed to determine the effect of calcium, if any, on prostate cancer risk.

Renal ...Kidney stones have been reported in individuals taking calcium carbonate 1500 mg daily in combination with vitamin D 2000 IU daily for 4 years (93943).

(Read more about CALCIUM)

General ...There is currently a limited amount of information on the adverse effects of camu camu. A thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.

(Read more about CAMU CAMU)

General ...Orally, carrot is well tolerated when consumed as a food. It also seems to be generally well-tolerated when consumed as a medicine. Some people are allergic to carrot; allergic symptoms include anaphylactic, cutaneous, respiratory, and gastrointestinal reactions such as hives, swelling of the larynx, asthma, or diarrhea (25820,93606,106560). In infants, excessive consumption of carrot products in nursing bottles has been reported to cause extensive caries in the primary teeth (25817).
Topically, carrot has been associated with a case of phytophotodermatitis (101716).

Dental ...Orally, feeding carrot juice to infants, with or without sugar- or acid-containing beverages, has been reported to damage teeth and cause dental caries (25817).

Dermatologic ...Orally, excessive consumption of carrots or carrot-containing products can cause yellowing of the skin, which results from increased beta-carotene levels in the blood (25817). Carrots may cause allergic reactions in some patients. Allergic responses to carrot-containing foods include skin reactions such as hives, erythema, swelling, and/or papules (25820,96306).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, carrots may cause allergic reactions in some patients. Allergic responses to carrot-containing foods can include gastrointestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea (25820).

Immunologic ...Orally, carrots may cause allergic reactions in some patients (25820,96306,106560). Allergic responses to carrot-containing foods can include skin reactions such as hives, erythema, swelling, and/or papules (25820,96306). For one patient, treatment of skin lesions resolved after a month of oral antihistamines and topical steroids, and avoiding further contact with carrot (96306). Allergic responses to carrot-containing foods can also include gastrointestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea, and respiratory symptoms, such as swelling of the larynx or asthma (25820). In one case, a patient with a history of allergic rhinitis and asthma who had been successfully treated with subcutaneous immunotherapy and was tolerant of consumption of raw and cooked carrots developed rhinoconjunctivitis when handling carrots. Inhalation of dust particles and aerosols produced by food processing activities and containing allergens from the peel and pulp of carrots is thought to have sensitized the airway, producing a distinct form of respiratory food allergy in which there are typically no symptoms with ingestion (106560).
Topically, a female runner developed phytophotodermatitis, which was considered possibly associated with the inclusion of carrot in a sunscreen (Yes To Carrots Daily Facial Moisturizer with SPF 15; Yes to, Inc.) (101716).

Psychiatric ...Compulsive carrot eating is a rare condition in which the patient craves carrots. According to one case report, withdrawal symptoms include nervousness, cravings, insomnia, water brash, and irritability (25821).

(Read more about CARROT)

General ...Orally, chlorella is generally well-tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Allergic reactions, abdominal cramping, constipation, diarrhea, fatigue, flatus, nausea, photosensitivity, and stool discoloration.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Anaphylaxis.

Dermatologic ...Orally, photosensitivity reactions have occurred following ingestion of chlorella (3900,5852). According to case reports, five patients who had ingested chlorella exhibited swelling followed by erythematopurpuric lesions on sun-exposed areas of the body (5852). The photosensitizing agent in the chlorella tablets was identified as pheophorbide-a and its ester.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, chlorella can cause diarrhea, abdominal cramping, flatus, and nausea, especially during the first two weeks of treatment (5890,6804,92130,92132). In one clinical trial, one out of 42 patients reported nausea and one reported diarrhea (92132). In another trial, taking chlorella tablets (Sun Chlorella A, Sun Chlorella Corp) and a chlorella extract (Wakasa Gold, Sun Chlorella Corp) resulted in transient worsening of constipation in 4 of 13 patients and transient mild diarrhea in 2 of 13 patients (92130).
Green discoloration of the feces has also been reported, due to the chlorophyll content of chlorella (6804,95013).

Hematologic ...Orally, chlorella has been linked to one case of thrombocytopenia; however, causality has not been determined. A 49-year-old female living in Turkey presented with thrombocytopenia (a platelet count of 27,000/mm³) after taking chlorella 1080 mg daily for 20 days. Platelet counts had been normal one month earlier, and returned to normal two weeks after discontinuing the chlorella supplement (99879).

Immunologic ...Allergic reactions, including asthma and anaphylaxis, have been reported in people taking chlorella and in those preparing chlorella tablets (3900,5847,41827,105645).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, manganese (Mn)-induced parkinsonism has been reported after long-term consumption of chlorella extract. In this case, a patient on maintenance hemodialysis reported gait disturbance, dysarthria, elevated serum and cerebrospinal fluid manganese levels, and abnormal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of the brain. The authors identified the condition as a rare case of Mn-induced parkinsonism, which may have been due to long-term ingestion of a chlorella extract containing 1.7 mg of Mn in the usual daily dose. The patient underwent edetic acid infusion therapy, which improved the MRI abnormalities and the other symptoms improved four months later (41817).
In one study, fatigue was reported in 18 of 41 patients receiving chlorella 200 mg (10388).

(Read more about CHLORELLA)

General ...Orally, collard is well tolerated when used in amounts found in foods. A thorough evaluation of safety outcomes related to the use of medicinal amounts of collard has not been conducted.

(Read more about COLLARD)

General ...Orally, cranberry seems to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Diarrhea and gastrointestinal discomfort.

Dermatologic ...Orally, skin redness and itching has been reported in one patient (46389).

Gastrointestinal ...In very large doses, for example 3-4 L per day of juice, cranberry can cause gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea, particularly in young children (46364). There are reports of abdominal and gastrointestinal discomfort after taking cranberry tablets, extracts, and juice in clinical trials (16720,46379,111407). Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea have also been reported with consumption of lower doses of cranberry juice cocktail, 16 ounces per day, equivalent to about 4 ounces cranberry juice, for several weeks (16415).

Genitourinary ...Vulvovaginal candidiasis has been associated with ingestion of cranberry juice (46374). Clinical research suggests that ingestion of cranberry juice may be associated with vaginal itching and vaginal dryness (46471). One patient in clinical research stopped taking dried cranberry juice due to excessive urination (46437), and an isolated case of nocturia following ingestion of cranberry tablets has been reported (16720).

Hematologic ...Thrombocytopenia has been reported as an adverse event to cranberry juice (46459).

Other ...An isolated case of sensitive swollen nipples after taking cranberry tablets has been reported (16720).

(Read more about CRANBERRY)

General ...Orally, the whole fruit, as well as the seed, fruit, and leaf extracts, seem to be well tolerated. Topically, grape seed extracts seem to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal pain, diarrhea, dry mouth, dyspepsia, headache, joint pain, and nausea.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Anaphylaxis to grape skin has been reported.

Dermatologic ...Orally, mild hair thinning has been reported in a patient taking a specific grape leaf extract AS195 KG) (2538). Urticaria (hives) has also been reported with this same extract (53206). Cases of contact dermatitis have been reported in grape workers, including those working in California vineyards (53270,53272,53275).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, abdominal pain and nausea have been reported with use of grape seed extract, but these effects typically occur at rates similar to placebo (9182,13162). In a case report of a 57-year-old man, intermittent nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea occurred over a 10-day period and improved once grape seed extract was stopped (96764). Gastrointestinal adverse effects have also been reported with use of a different grape seed extract (Entelon, Hanlim Pharm). However, the specific types of gastrointestinal effects were not described (100954). A specific grape leaf extract AS195 (Antistax, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG) has reportedly caused flatulence, mild constipation, gastrointestinal discomfort, diarrhea, dyspepsia, dry mouth, and retching (2538,52985,53206). Diarrhea, gastrointestinal distress, indigestion, and aversion to taste have been reported with use of Concord grape juice (52972,53166,53175,53181,53199). Loose stools have been reported in a clinical trial of grape pomace (99270). Bowel obstruction caused by intact grapes and grape seeds has been described in case reports (53241,53284,53278). Excessive consumption of grapes, dried grapes, raisins, or sultanas might cause diarrhea due to laxative effects (4201).

Hematologic ...Orally, one case of leg hematoma following a minor trauma was reported in a person using grape leaf extract (2538). Also, one case of bruising was reported in a person drinking Concord grape juice daily for 2 weeks (52972).

Immunologic ...Orally, there is one report of an anaphylactic reaction to oral grape skin extract, which included urticaria and angioedema (4073).

Musculoskeletal ...Orally, musculoskeletal disorders, including back pain, have been reported with use of a specific grape leaf extract AS195 KG) (2538,53206). Joint pain and lumbago have been reported with use of grape seed extract, but these effects occur at rates similar to placebo (91541).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, headache has been reported with use of grape seed extract, but this effect occurs at rates similar to placebo (9182,91541). A specific grape leaf extract AS195 (Antistax, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG) has reportedly caused dizziness, tiredness, headache, and sleep problems (2538,53206). As a class, nervous system adverse effects have been reported with use of a specific grape seed extract (Entelon, Hanlim Pharm). However, the specific types of adverse neurologic effects were not described (100954).

Ocular/Otic ...Orally, ocular adverse effects have been reported with use of a specific grape seed extract (Entelon, Hanlim Pharm). However, the specific types of ocular adverse effects were not described (100954).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...Orally, nasopharyngitis and oropharyngeal pain have been reported with use of a specific grape leaf extract AS195 KG) (53206). Sore throat, cough, allergic rhinitis, and nasopharyngitis have been reported with use of grape seed extract, but these effects occur at rates similar to placebo (9182,91541). One case report describes a 16-year-old female who developed increased levels of immunoglobulin E (IgE) following skin-prick exposure to grape vine pollen, as well as positive test responses following bronchial and conjunctival provocation (53301). Reduced forced vital capacity has been described in California grape workers (53080,53081). Occupational eosinophilic lung was diagnosed in a grape grower with a history of asthma. Respiratory exposure to sulfites in grape was implicated as the cause of the adverse reaction (53285).

Other ...Orally, grape products can cause adverse effects due to contamination with pesticides or mycotoxins. Some evidence has shown that pesticides used in vineyards may remain on grape surfaces post-harvesting. For example, the fungicide folpet sprayed on grapevines has been shown to remain on the grape surface. Although there was minimal penetration of the epicuticular wax, it showed high resistance to washing (52935). Carbaryl has been identified in over 58% of juice samples collected in Canada. This pesticide reportedly occurred more frequently in grape than in other juices. However, estimates of short-term intake were below proposed acute reference doses (53003).
Ochratoxin A is a mycotoxin that is suspected to be nephrotoxic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic and carcinogenic and has been identified in grape juice, frozen grape pulps, and red and white wine sold in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. However, the highest levels identified in grape products were lower than the established virtually safe dose of 5 ng/kg of body weight daily (53010,53004). Ochratoxin A has also been identified in red, but not white, grape juice marketed in Switzerland, Canada, and the U.S. (53292,53020).

(Read more about GRAPE)

General ...Orally or intravenously, iron is generally well tolerated when used appropriately.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhea, gastrointestinal irritation, nausea, and vomiting.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Case reports have raised concerns about oral or gastric ulcerations.
Intravenously: Case reports have raised concerns about hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia.

Cardiovascular ...There is debate regarding the association between coronary heart disease (CHD) or myocardial infarction (MI) and high iron intake or high body iron stores. Some observational studies have reported that high body iron stores are associated with increased risk of MI and CHD (1492,9542,9544,9545,15175). Some observational studies reported that only high heme iron intake from dietary sources such as red meat are associated with increased risk of MI and CHD (1492,9546,15174,15205,15206,91180). However, the majority of research has found no association between serum iron levels and cardiovascular disease (1097,1099,9543,9547,9548,9549,9550,56469,56683).
There is one case of Kounis syndrome, also referred to as allergic angina or allergic myocardial infarction, in a 39-year-old female patient without previous coronary artery disease given intravenous ferric carboxymaltose. The patient experienced anaphylactic symptoms, including headache, abdominal pain, and breathing difficulties, 3 minutes after starting the infusion. She was further diagnosed with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (112607).

Dermatologic ...Cutaneous hemosiderosis, or skin staining, has been reported following intravenous iron infusion in various case reports. Most of these cases are due to extravasation following iron infusion (112605,112611). In one case, extravasation has occurred following iron derisomaltose infusion in a 41-year-old female with chronic kidney disease (112605). Rarely, diffuse cutaneous hermosiderosis has occurred. In one case, a 31-year-old female with excessive sweating developed cutaneous hemosiderosis in the armpits following an intravenous iron polymaltose infusion (112611).

Endocrine ...Population research in females shows that higher ferritin levels are associated with an approximately 1. 5-fold higher odds of developing gestational diabetes. Increased dietary intake of heme-iron, but not non-heme iron, is also associated with an increased risk for gestational diabetes. The effects of iron supplementation could not be determined from the evaluated research (96618). However, in a sub-analysis of a large clinical trial in pregnant adults, daily supplementation with iron 100 mg from 14 weeks gestation until delivery did not affect the frequency or severity of glucose intolerance or gestational weight gain (96619).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, iron can cause dry mouth, gastrointestinal irritation, heartburn, abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting (96621,102864,104680,104684,110179,110185,110188,110189,110192). These adverse effects are uncommon at doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 45 mg per day of elemental iron in adults with normal iron stores (7135). Higher doses can be taken safely in adults with iron deficiency, but gastrointestinal side effects may occur (1095,20118,20119,56698,102864). Taking iron supplements with food seems to reduce gastrointestinal side effects (7135). However, food can also significantly reduce iron absorption. Iron should be taken on an empty stomach, unless it cannot be tolerated.
There are several formulations of iron products such as ferrous sulfate, ferrous gluconate, ferrous fumarate, and others. Manufacturers of some formulations, such as polysaccharide-iron complex products (Niferex-150, etc), claim to be better tolerated than other formulations; however, there is no reliable evidence to support this claim. Gastrointestinal tolerability relates mostly to the elemental iron dose rather than the formulation (17500).
Enteric-coated or controlled-release iron formulations might reduce nausea for some patients, however, these products also have lower absorption rates (17500).
Liquid oral preparations can blacken and stain teeth (20118).
Iron can also cause oral ulcerations and ulcerations of the gastric mucosa (56684,91182,96622,110179). In one case report, an 87-year-old female with Alzheimer disease experienced a mucosal ulceration, possibly due to holding a crushed ferrous sulfate 80 mg tablet in the mouth for too long prior to swallowing (91182). The ulceration was resolved after discontinuing iron supplementation. In another case report, a 76-year old male suffered gastric mucosal injury after taking a ferrous sulfate tablet daily for 4 years (56684). In a third case report, a 14-year-old female developed gastritis involving symptoms of upper digestive hemorrhage, nausea, melena, and stomach pain. The hemorrhage was attributed to supplementation with ferrous sulfate 2 hours after meals for the prior 2 weeks (96622). In one case report, a 43-year old female developed atrophic gastritis with non-bleeding ulcerations five days after starting oral ferrous sulfate 325 mg twice daily (110179).
Intravenously, iron can cause gastrointestinal symptoms sch as nausea (104684,110192).