Chewable Black Elderberry Immune Complex Natural Mixed Berry Flavor by Nature's Truth

There is insufficient reliable information available about the effectiveness of American elder.

(Read more about AMERICAN ELDER)

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Influenza. Although some small clinical studies show that elderberry extracts can improve influenza symptoms in otherwise healthy adults, a small clinical study enrolling adults and children with or without high risk medical conditions shows it does not reduce the duration of symptoms. Details: Small clinical studies in otherwise healthy adults with influenza presenting within 48 hours of symptom onset show that taking elderberry extract syrup (Sambucol, Nature's Way) 15 mL four times daily for 5 days improves patient ratings of symptoms such as aches and pains, cough, and nasal congestion an average of 4 days earlier than in control groups. It also reduced the use of rescue medications (5260,12235). Another small clinical study in adults shows that taking an elderberry extract lozenge (ViraBLOC, HerbalScience) 175 mg four times daily for 2 days, starting within 24 hours of symptom onset, improves flu-like symptoms, typically within 48 hours, when compared with placebo (17022). However, in a small clinical study in children and adults 5 years and older with influenza, including those with high-risk conditions such as asthma, chronic lung disease, and heart disease, using Sambucol for 5 days starting within 48 hours of symptom onset did not reduce the time to complete resolution of symptoms for a 24-hour period when compared with placebo (103831). These negative findings may be due to the age and baseline health status of the enrolled patients, as well as the use of symptom resolution, as opposed to symptom improvement, as the primary outcome. Elderberry has also been evaluated in combination with echinacea for treating influenza symptoms (95650), but it is not clear whether the combination is better than either ingredient alone.

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). Although there is interest in using oral elderberry for allergic rhinitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of elderberry for this purpose.
• Asthenopia (eye strain). Oral elderberry extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults without dry eye disease with occupations requiring the use of video display terminals shows that taking a specific combination product containing elderberry fruit extract 300 mg, zinc 10 mg, L-carnitine 50 mg, currant 100 mg, and Eleutherococcus root 50 mg (Meramirt CM) once daily for 1 month improves measures of eye strain and contrast sensitivity when compared to baseline. Improvements in these measures were lacking in the control group (111295). Statistical comparison between the two groups was not reported. It is unclear if these effects are due to elderberry, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is unclear whether elderberry has any benefit in CVD. In one small study it did not alter disease markers. Details: Preliminary clinical research in postmenopausal women shows that taking elderberry extract 500 mg daily for 12 weeks does not significantly improve markers of CVD, including inflammatory biomarkers, vascular activity, or plasma lipid or glucose levels, when compared with placebo (21141).
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Elderberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in men aged 40-70 years with a history of smoking and Stage 2 COPD, shows that a combination of elderberry 165 mg, heart's ease herb 165 mg, and calendula flowers 165 mg (Inflaminat, INAT-Farma), 3 capsules daily for 6 months modestly improves the score on the 5-point breathlessness, cough, and sputum scale (BCSS) and modestly increases the mean forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), compared with no changes in the placebo group. However, the number of COPD exacerbations per month is not affected (103629). It is unclear if these effects are due to elderberry, the other ingredients, or the combination.
• Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Although there has been interest in using oral elderberry for CFS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of elderberry for this purpose.
• Cognitive function. Oral elderberry extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in healthy adults shows that consuming a multi-ingredient beverage containing elderberry extract 50 mg, carob extract, green tea powder, and guarana seed extract improves some measures of cognitive function such as rapid visual information processing and multitasking 120 minutes later when compared with placebo (113940). It is unclear if this effect is due to elderberry, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Common cold. Oral elderberry extract does not seem to PREVENT colds when taken prophylactically, but it may reduce the duration and severity of existing colds. Details: Clinical research in healthy adults shows that taking capsules containing elderberry extract (BerryPharma, Iprona AG) 600 mg daily for 8 days before overseas air travel, and then 900 mg daily starting 1 day before traveling and continuing for 4-5 days after arriving at the destination, does not reduce the number of colds or impact quality of life when compared with placebo. However, this product does reduce the duration of colds by about 2 days and the severity of colds by about 58% when compared with placebo (91374).
• Constipation. Oral elderberry extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial among airline flight crew shows that taking a specific product (ACTIVE) containing elderberry extract 70 mg and a specific probiotic formulation (SYNBIO) daily for 1 month improves constipation, stool volume and consistency, ease of defecation, intestinal regularity, flatulence, and diarrhea compared to baseline, but not when compared with placebo (112134). It is unclear if these effects are due to elderberry, the probiotics, or the combination.
• Gingivitis. Elderberry has been evaluated as a mouthwash or patch in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research shows that using a mouth rinse (HM-302, Izun Pharmaceuticals) containing elderberry, echinacea, and gotu kola 15 mL three times daily for 14 days might prevent worsening of gingivitis when compared with a placebo rinse. However, it only minimally improves symptoms (20069). Other preliminary clinical research shows that applying a periodontal patch (PerioPatch, Izun Pharmaceuticals) containing elderberry, echinacea, and gotu kola either as a single dose, or three times daily for 1 day then once daily for 2 days, reduces some, but not all, measures of inflammation and gingivitis when compared with no treatment (20068,20070).
• HIV/AIDS. Although there has been interest in using oral elderberry for HIV/AIDS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of elderberry for this purpose.
• Hyperlipidemia. It is unclear if elderberry is beneficial for the treatment of hyperlipidemia. Details: One preliminary clinical study in patients with hyperlipidemia shows that taking capsules containing spray-dried elderberry 400 mg, providing 10% anthocyanins, three times daily for 2 weeks does not reduce serum lipids when compared with placebo (21142).
• Lower respiratory tract infections. Oral elderberry extract has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in children aged 2-6 years with recurrent respiratory tract infections shows that adding a specific combination product (Stimunex gocce) containing elderberry extract, beta-glucans, zinc, and vitamin D3 to standard therapy does not reduce the number or duration of lower respiratory tract infections when compared with standard therapy alone. In the four months after treatment completion, the number of infections was reduced by about 50%; however, the total number of infections in each group was small. The dose was 1 drop/kg daily for one month, followed by 1 drop/kg daily for 15 consecutive days each month for the next three months (109212). The validity of this study is limited by lack of blinding.
• Obesity. Elderberry has been studied for weight loss in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Observational research in overweight adults shows that replacing all meals for 8 days with a kit containing elderberry juice (from 120 grams of elderberries/day), dried elderberry (225 mg/day), dried elderflower (3.9 grams/day), elderflower extract (600 mg/day), and dried asparagus (40.5 grams/day), while also taking psyllium 2-3 teaspoons daily for 2 weeks, is associated with a mean decrease in body weight of 3.2 kg over 14 days when compared with baseline (94939). The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Also, it is unclear whether this effect is due to elderberry, other ingredients, the combination, or fasting from regular food.
• Psychological well-being. Oral elderberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial among airline flight crew shows that taking a specific product (ACTIVE) containing elderberry extract 70 mg and a specific probiotic formulation (SYNBIO) daily for 1 month improves scores on the Psychological General Well Being Index when compared with placebo. The index measures symptoms of anxiety and depression, general health status, and feelings of vitality and general self-control (112134). It is unclear if these effects are due to elderberry, the probiotics, or the combination.
• Respiratory tract infections. Oral elderberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in children aged 2-6 years with recurrent respiratory tract infections shows that adding a specific combination product (Stimunex gocce) containing elderberry extract, beta-glucans, zinc, and vitamin D3 to standard therapy reduces the duration of respiratory tract infections by about 1.7 days and modestly improves parent-perceived symptom severity when compared with standard therapy alone. However, there was no effect on the number of total, upper, or lower respiratory tract infections, the use of antibiotics or antipyretics, or the number of days missed from school. The product was dosed as 1 drop/kg daily for one month, followed by 1 drop/kg daily for 15 consecutive days each month for the next three months (109212). The validity of this study is limited by lack of blinding.
• Rhinosinusitis. Although there has been interest in using oral elderberry for rhinosinusitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of elderberry for this purpose.
• Upper respiratory tract infection (URTI). Oral elderberry has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in children aged 2-6 years with recurrent respiratory tract infections shows that adding a specific combination product (Stimunex gocce) containing elderberry extract, beta-glucans, zinc, and vitamin D3 to standard therapy does not reduce the number or duration of upper respiratory tract infections when compared with standard therapy alone. At four months after treatment completion, the number of infections was reduced by about 44%; however, the total number of infections in both groups was small. The product was dosed as 1 drop/kg daily for one month, followed by 1 drop/kg daily for 15 consecutive days each month for the next three months (109212). The validity of this study is limited by lack of blinding. More evidence is needed to rate elderberry for these uses.

(Read more about ELDERBERRY)

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Cystic fibrosis. Long-term nebulized hypertonic sodium chloride improves lung function and reduces pulmonary exacerbations in patients with cystic fibrosis. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research in adults with cystic fibrosis show that, when taken along with a bronchodilator and other standard therapies, nebulized hypertonic sodium chloride in concentrations of 3% to 7%, up to 10 mL twice daily for 4 weeks, increases forced expiratory volume at one second (FEV1) when compared with isotonic saline (sodium chloride 0.9%) (26230,26230). This benefit was not seen at 48 weeks. Other clinical research in adults with cystic fibrosis shows that inhaling sodium chloride 7%, 4 mL twice daily for 48 weeks, does not improve FEV1 when compared with isotonic saline. However, chronic treatment with hypertonic saline does reduce the number of pulmonary exacerbations and increase the number of patients without pulmonary exacerbations when compared with isotonic saline (29402). It is not clear if this benefit occurs in children with cystic fibrosis. The Pulmonary Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee of the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation recommends that individuals with cystic fibrosis aged 6 years or older use nebulized hypertonic saline long-term to improve lung function, reduce the number of exacerbations, and improve quality of life (29403).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Oral sodium chloride seems to prevent nephrotoxicity associated with use of amphotericin B. Details: Clinical research shows that administering oral or intravenous sodium chloride 150 mEq daily during treatment with amphotericin B can attenuate the rise in serum creatinine levels and preserve renal function when compared to treatment with amphotericin B alone (26226).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Bipolar disorder. It is unclear if oral sodium is beneficial in preventing lithium level fluctuations in patients with bipolar disorder. Details: A moderate-sized open-label clinical study in adults with type I bipolar disorder receiving lithium carbonate shows that taking sodium chloride 1 gram daily for 12 weeks along with dietary salt restriction of 1 gram daily reduces the percentage of patients with lithium level fluctuations above 0.8 mEq/L, but does not significantly affect serum sodium, potassium, aldosterone, or creatinine levels when compared with controls who were not salt restricted, but were advised not to consume additional salt at the table (112909). However, the interpretation of these findings is limited by missing data in both groups.
• Canker sores. Although there is interest in using topical sodium chloride for canker sores, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of sodium chloride for this condition.
• Congestive heart failure. It is unclear if oral sodium is beneficial in patients with acute decompensated heart failure requiring decongestive therapy with diuretics. Details: A moderate-sized clinical study in adults hospitalized with acute decompensated heart failure requiring high-dose intravenous furosemide shows that taking sodium chloride 2 grams three times daily for up to 96 hours does not affect patient weight or serum creatinine levels when compared with placebo (112911). However, the clinical relevance of this study is unclear and it may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups.
• Conjunctivitis. Although there is interest in using ophthalmic sodium chloride for conjunctivitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of sodium chloride for this condition.
• Hyponatremia. Although there is interest in using oral sodium chloride for hyponatremia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of oral sodium chloride for this condition.
• Pharyngitis. Although there is interest in using topical sodium chloride for pharyngitis, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of sodium chloride for this condition.
• Prematurity. It is unclear if oral sodium is beneficial for premature infants. Details: Preliminary clinical research in infants born at less than 32 weeks' gestation shows that adding sodium 4 mEq/kg daily to enteral feedings, starting from the 7th day after birth and continuing through the 35th day, reduces the risk of developing hyponatremia and improves weight gain when compared with adding water (98180). A small, open-label clinical study in newborns less than 35 weeks gestation shows that high sodium intake, defined as an average of 0.25% sodium in maintenance fluids, for 48 hours on day 2 and 3 after birth results in less weight loss within the first 72 hours of life when compared with control, but does not improve mortality, length of hospital stay, or complications from prematurity (112908). However, interpretation of these findings is limited by varied concentrations of sodium as an intervention. More evidence is needed to rate sodium for these uses.

(Read more about SODIUM)

EFFECTIVE

• Vitamin C deficiency. Oral or intramuscular vitamin C is effective for preventing or treating vitamin C deficiency. Details: Administering vitamin C orally or intramuscularly prevents and treats vitamin C deficiency, including scurvy. Vitamin C administration can reverse complications of scurvy within 2 days to 3 weeks (4844). In newborns with transient tyrosinemia due to vitamin C deficiency, oral or intramuscular vitamin C can correct this condition (15).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Anemia of chronic disease. Oral vitamin C seems to improve markers of anemia in patients on hemodialysis. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research in hemodialysis patients with anemia shows that treatment with vitamin C 200-300 mg three times weekly for 3-6 months increases hemoglobin levels by approximately 0.9 grams/dL, increases transferrin saturation by about 8%, and decreases the required recombinant human erythropoietin dose by 17 U/kg weekly when compared with standard care (83447,83475).
• Atrial fibrillation. Oral and intravenous vitamin C seems to help prevent atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgeries. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that taking vitamin C prior to and after cardiac surgery reduces the risk of postoperative atrial fibrillation by 27% to 53%. Most studies administered vitamin C at doses of 1-2 grams orally daily for 1-3 days prior to cardiac surgery, followed by 1-2 grams in two divided doses daily for 4-5 days after cardiac surgery. Some studies provided vitamin C intravenously at similar doses, but oral vitamin C seems to be more effective (91233,96703,96705). Despite these findings, a meta-analysis of clinical research conducted only in the U.S. does not support the benefit of vitamin C for reducing postoperative atrial fibrillation (96703). These differences may be related to lifestyle factors such as nutrition, as well as differences in hospital treatments. Vitamin C has also been studied in combination with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) with evidence of benefit (90701).
• Bowel preparation. Powdered vitamin C is approved for use as part of a polyethylene glycol-based bowel preparation for colonoscopy. Details: Clinical research shows that treatment with 2 liters of oral solution containing polyethylene glycol (PEG) plus vitamin C achieves a similar quality of bowel cleansing as treatment with 4 liters of PEG when administered on the evening prior to colonoscopy or when administered in a split-dose regimen. Patients given 2 liters of PEG plus vitamin C solution also have better adherence and experience fewer adverse events, such as nausea, vomiting, or abdominal bloating, compared to patients treated with 4 liters of PEG solution without vitamin C (90413,90415,90420,90424,90428). This treatment also appears to be effective and tolerable in elderly patients aged 60-79 years, including those with poor bowel habits and a high number of comorbidities (108085). Other clinical research in older adults undergoing bowel preparation for colonoscopy also shows that taking 1 liter of PEG plus vitamin C (CleanViewAL, Taejoon Pharm) results in similar quality of bowel cleansing overall and per segment with similar tolerability and adverse effects as sodium picosulfate 170 mL plus magnesium citrate or oral sulfate solution alone (111297,112476). The most common PEG plus vitamin C preparation used in clinical research is MoviPrep (Norgine BV), which contains macrogol 3350 100 grams, sodium sulfate 7.5 grams, sodium chloride 2.7 grams, potassium chloride 1 gram, vitamin C 4.7 grams, and sodium ascorbate 5.9 grams per liter of solution (90413,90415,90424). In the U.S., MoviPrep is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for bowel preparation prior to a colonoscopy.
• Cataracts. Dietary and supplemental intake of vitamin C may reduce the risk of developing cataracts. Details: Population research suggests that people with the highest total intake of vitamin C have about a 19% reduced risk of developing cataracts when compared with those with the lowest total intake, with the most benefit observed for nuclear cataracts (96711). Additionally, another observational study shows that higher supplemental intake of vitamin C over 10 years is associated with a 60% reduction in the incidence of nuclear and cortical cataracts (4208). Other population research suggests that individuals with the highest blood levels of vitamin C have a 33% lower odds of developing age-related cataract, but any benefit is limited to Asian populations (90944). An umbrella review of meta-analyses also shows that dietary intake of vitamin C is associated with a 27% lower odds of cataract development (112095). However, a prospective clinical study shows that a combination of vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene does not prevent age-related loss of vision from cataracts in well-nourished people with an average supplementation duration of 6.3 years (7304).
• Common cold. Oral high-dose vitamin C might modestly shorten and reduce cold symptoms; however, taking vitamin C prophylactically does not seem to prevent the development of a cold. Details: There is substantial controversy about the effectiveness of vitamin C for treating the common cold (1969,1989,7100,9835,9836). The majority of evidence shows that taking high doses of vitamin C orally might decrease the duration of cold symptoms by 1-1.5 days in some patients (1966,1967,1968,1987,6458,7102,9832,83487). However, other studies have found no effect with doses up to 3 grams daily (9833). A meta-analysis of clinical research in healthy children and adults shows that taking vitamin C 1-4 grams daily for one week to 5 months reduces cold severity by 13%, limits absences from daily activities, and improves the duration of severe symptoms, but does not reduce the duration of mild symptoms, when compared with placebo (113665). Vitamin C has also been investigated for preventing the common cold. A meta-analysis of clinical research suggests that vitamin C supplementation decreases the incidence of cold in individuals exposed to physical stress, but not in the general population (83487). Other research suggests vitamin C may be more effective for treating cold symptoms in children than in adults. Also, there may be a dose-dependent response; doses of at least 2 grams daily seem to work better than 1 gram doses (9834). Taking vitamin C supplements prophylactically does not decrease the risk of catching a cold (1966,1967,1968,1987,3042,6458,7101,9832). Dietary intake of vitamin C also does not seem to affect the risk of getting a cold (10780).
• Complex regional pain syndrome. Most research shows that taking oral vitamin C after a wrist or distal radius fracture or after orthopedic surgery seems to reduce the risk of developing complex regional pain. Details: Although some research has found no benefit in patients with distal radius (i.e. wrist) fractures (90411,96702), most clinical research shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg daily, and possibly doses of up to 1500 mg daily, for 45-50 days beginning immediately after fracture can reduce the risk of developing complex regional pain syndrome (2045,16302,96700,96706). Reasons for discrepancies are unclear but might relate to differences in diagnostic criteria for complex regional pain syndrome (96702). Research in patients undergoing orthopedic surgery has also shown benefit with the use of vitamin C for the prevention of complex regional pain syndrome (90422,108076,108087). One meta-analysis of clinical research in patients undergoing wrist, foot, or ankle surgery shows that taking vitamin C 500-1000 mg for 42-50 days following surgery reduces the rate of complex regional pain syndrome, and may improve pain following ankle or foot surgery, when compared with placebo (108076). The validity of these findings is limited by the high heterogeneity of included trials. Another meta-analysis of clinical research in patients undergoing orthopedic surgery (i.e. wrist, knee, ankle, foot, lumbar, rotator cuff) suggests that oral and intravenous vitamin C may have similar effectiveness; however, this evidence is low quality (108087).
• Exercise-induced respiratory infections. High-dose oral vitamin C seems to reduce the risk of respiratory infections associated with strenuous exercise. Details: Some preliminary clinical research suggests that prophylactic use of vitamin C in doses of 600 mg to 1 gram daily for 3-8 weeks before heavy physical exercise, such as a marathon, might prevent upper respiratory infections that sometimes follow heavy exercise (9831,83370). More recently, high doses of vitamin C have been studied. A large clinical study in army recruits undergoing basic military training shows that taking vitamin C 6 grams daily for one month reduces the odds of getting a cold by 20% when compared with placebo (102975).
• Hypercholesterolemia. Oral vitamin C seems to reduce lipid levels in patients with hypercholesterolemia. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in patients with hypercholesterolemia shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg daily for at least 4 weeks reduces low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by about 8 mg/dL and reduces triglycerides by about 20 mg/dL when compared with control (83445).
• Hypertension. Oral vitamin C seems to modestly reduce blood pressure in patients with hypertension, but some evidence is conflicting. Details: Vitamin C seems to modestly reduce systolic blood pressure (SBP), without meaningful effects on diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (2044,9822,13162,83483,102974). A meta-analysis of 13 clinical trials in patients with hypertension, with or without other comorbidities, shows that taking a median dose of vitamin C 500 mg daily for 8 weeks reduces SBP but not DBP by about 5 mmHg. Some of the studies used vitamin C in combination with other supplements, such as vitamin E and magnesium. When studies assessing vitamin C alone were analyzed, the magnitude of reduction in SBP decreased (83483). A newer meta-analysis of small clinical studies in patients with essential hypertension shows that taking vitamin C 200 mg or more daily reduces SBP by about 4 mmHg and DBP by about 2 mmHg (102974). However, this newer analysis omitted numerous relevant studies and included studies with normotensive patients and those without an adequate control, limiting the validity of its findings. In contrast, a network meta-analysis of small, low-quality clinical studies comparing five different vitamins in adults with essential hypertension shows that vitamin C does not reduce SBP, DBP, mean 24-hour SBP, mean 24-hour DBP, or heart rate when compared with placebo and when indirectly compared with vitamin B2, vitamin D, vitamin E, and folic acid. However, the included studies were of low quality and high heterogeneity, particularly in dosing, limiting the validity of the results (113668).
• Laser skin resurfacing. Topical vitamin C seems to reduce erythema occurring after cosmetic laser skin resurfacing procedures intended to reduce scars and wrinkles. Details: There is some evidence that an aqueous formulation of topical vitamin C can decrease the degree and duration of erythema following cutaneous carbon dioxide laser resurfacing for scar and wrinkle removal (1959).
• Lead toxicity. Dietary vitamin C seems to lower concentrations of lead in the blood. Details: Observational research has found that consuming more vitamin C from dietary sources is associated with lower blood concentrations of lead. People who consumed at least 340 mg of vitamin C daily as part of the diet had lower blood lead levels than those who consumed less than 100 mg vitamin C daily (3097,3098,3099).
• Nitrate tolerance. Oral vitamin C might prevent nitrate tolerance in some patients. Details: Small clinical studies show that taking vitamin C orally seems to prevent the development of nitrate tolerance in patients taking sublingual nitroglycerin. There is some evidence that short-term vitamin C supplementation can prevent tolerance to the vasodilatory effects of nitrates (1441,1961).
• Postoperative pain. Oral or intravenous vitamin C might prevent acute postoperative pain following certain surgeries. It is unclear if vitamin C reduces chronic postoperative pain. Details: A meta-analysis of 7 small clinical studies in adults undergoing elective surgery shows that receiving perioperative vitamin C, either as 1 gram orally, 2-3 grams intravenously, or 50 mg/kg intravenously, modestly reduces acute pain and opioid requirements for up to 24 hours when compared with control (105457). Most surgeries were laparoscopic and included cholecystectomy, colectomy, hysterectomy; two non-laparoscopic surgeries included uvulopalatopharyngoplasty with tonsillectomy and major abdominal surgery (90418,99840,105457). A meta-analysis of clinical trials in adults undergoing noncardiac surgery (i.e., orthopedic, abdominal, gynecologic, kidney transplantation) shows that administering perioperative vitamin C, either orally or intravenously, reduces postoperative intravenous morphine requirements at 2, 24, and 48 hours after surgery and improves pain scores at 2, 6, and 24 hours after surgery when compared with placebo. The dose of vitamin C did not appear to impact outcomes. However, when only laparoscopic surgeries are included, perioperative vitamin C does not improve pain or morphine use when compared with placebo (108087). A moderate-sized clinical study in adults undergoing transurethral resection of a bladder tumor under general anesthesia shows that administering intravenous vitamin C 1 gram after induction of anesthesia reduces the incidence and severity of catheter-related bladder discomfort immediately after surgery and at 1 and 2 hours postoperatively, but not 6 hours, when compared with placebo. However, vitamin C does not reduce postoperative pain scores or analgesic requirements when compared with placebo (111645). For dental surgery, a small observational study in adults undergoing surgery for wisdom tooth extraction shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg three times daily for 7 days in addition to standard treatment reduces pain 24, 48, and 72 hours after surgery when compared with control (113664). Further research is needed to determine the effects of vitamin C for acute postoperative pain. Vitamin C has also been evaluated for reducing chronic pain after surgery. Clinical research in patients undergoing surgery for foot or ankle trauma shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg orally twice daily postoperatively for 6 weeks reduces pain scores when compared with placebo at 2 weeks and 6 weeks. The mean total amount of diclofenac used for pain relief over the 6-week period is also reduced, from 5.7 grams with placebo to 3.4 grams with vitamin C (102131).
• Wrinkled skin. Topical vitamin C might reduce the appearance of existing wrinkles. Details: Topical preparations containing vitamin C seem to improve the appearance of wrinkled skin. Some evidence shows that vitamin C 3% applied for 12 weeks might reduce facial wrinkles (14008). A small clinical study shows that applying a dissolving microneedle patch containing vitamin C 5.6% every 4 days for 12 weeks to crow's feet on one side of the face reduces wrinkles when compared to control treatment applied on the other side of the face (98780). Other clinical research in females aged 30-60 years shows that applying an oil-soluble cream containing the vitamin C derivative tetra-isopalmitoyl ascorbic acid 1%, 2%, or 3% to the periorbital area twice daily for 8 weeks reduces visual wrinkle grading when compared with placebo. A dose analysis shows greater improvements in wrinkle parameters, average wrinkle depth, and mean depth with the lower concentration, while greater improvements in maximum roughness and maximum depth are observed with the higher concentration (108072). This study only included individuals defined as having Fitzpatrick skin type III or IV; it effects on other skin types is unclear. Preparations containing vitamin C in combination with other ingredients have also been investigated. A small low-quality trial in females with moderately photodamaged and hyperpigmented facial skin shows that applying a moisturizer with vitamin C 30%, vitamin E, and coenzyme Q10 once daily in the morning, along with applying retinol 0.5% once daily or once every other day for 12 weeks, seems to improve skin tone, photodamage, and wrinkles when compared to baseline (99085). In another small trial, a topical preparation containing vitamin C 10% as L-ascorbic acid along with acetyl tyrosine, zinc sulfate, sodium hyaluronate, and bioflavonoids (Cellex-C High Potency Serum) applied to photo-aged facial skin for 3 months improves fine and coarse wrinkling, yellowing and sallowness, roughness, and skin tone when compared with placebo (6155). It is unclear if the beneficial effects of these products are due to vitamin C, other ingredients, or the combination.

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Acute bronchitis. Oral vitamin C doesn't seem to improve symptoms of acute bronchitis. Details: A clinical study in adults with acute bronchitis shows that taking vitamin C orally 500 mg on day 1, then 250 mg on days 2 through 5 (similar to an azithromycin regimen) doesn't seem to have any effect on quality of life or bronchitis duration when compared with azithromycin (9827).
• Asthma. Oral vitamin C doesn't seem to prevent asthma or improve lung function. Details: Although some observational research has found that some patients with asthma might have lower serum vitamin C levels (5873), other observational research found that increased dietary vitamin C intake is not associated with a reduced risk of asthma or improved lung function (15006,34567). In addition, clinical research shows that supplemental intake of vitamin C does not reduce asthma symptoms, improve lung function, or reduce the use of inhaled steroids in asthma patients (90409).
• Atherosclerosis. Oral vitamin C does not seem to reduce the progression of atherosclerosis. Details: A clinical study shows that taking a specific combination product containing slow-release vitamin C 250 mg and vitamin E 136 IU (CellaVie, Ferrosan A/S) twice daily modestly slows the 3-year progression of atherosclerosis of the carotid artery in males, but not females. This result persisted at a 6-year follow-up of this study (1918,10473). However, when this form of vitamin C is used alone, it does not slow the 3-year progression of atherosclerosis of the carotid artery (1918).
• Bladder cancer. Oral vitamin C does not reduce the risk of bladder cancer or mortality from bladder cancer. Details: Epidemiological research has found that supplemental vitamin C intake is not associated with mortality rate in patients with bladder cancer (9839). A secondary analysis of a large clinical trial, the Physicians' Health Study II, in healthy men aged at least 50 years also shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg daily alone or with vitamin E 400 IU daily for up to 10 years does not reduce the risk of developing bladder cancer or bladder cancer-related deaths when compared with placebo (90097).
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD). Oral vitamin C does not seem to be beneficial for either primary or secondary CVD prevention. Details: Vitamin C does not seem to be beneficial for primary prevention of CVD. Some population research has found that higher supplemental vitamin C or dietary vitamin C has been associated with a reduced risk of developing CVD (10358,14108,109779), while other observational research has found no benefit (34566,10358,14108). However, meta-analyses of clinical research in healthy patients show that vitamin C supplementation does not prevent CVD or coronary heart disease when compared with control (97308,104025). In 2004, the American Heart Association stated that current evidence does not justify use of antioxidants such as vitamin C for reducing the risk of CVD (12142). Evidence is also negative for secondary prevention in people with coronary heart disease. Population studies have found that higher serum vitamin C was associated with no effect or decreased CVD mortality from CVD (3910,5878). A meta-analysis of two large clinical trials shows that vitamin C supplementation does not reduce CVD events or CVD mortality when compared with control (97308).
• Colorectal cancer. Oral vitamin C does not seem to prevent colorectal cancer. Details: Population research has found that dietary vitamin C intake is not associated with a reduced risk of developing colon cancer. When total vitamin C intake from food and supplements is considered, there is a modest association (34600). However, most clinical trials show that supplemental vitamin C, alone or along with other antioxidants, does not reduce the risk of colorectal cancer development, colorectal cancer or adenoma recurrence, or colorectal cancer-related mortality (34580,34581,34594,90097,90089,92903).
• Fetal and premature infant mortality. Oral vitamin C does not seem to prevent neonatal death. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that taking vitamin C alone or with other supplements does not reduce the risk of neonatal death (83472,96707).
• Fractures. Oral vitamin C does not seem to improve fracture healing. Details: Clinical research shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg daily for 50 days following an acute distal radial fracture does not improve physical function, symptoms, or healing rates when compared with placebo (90411).
• Helicobacter pylori. Oral vitamin C does not seem to improve eradication of H. pylori. Details: Most clinical research shows that treatment with vitamin C, alone or in combination with vitamin E, does not improve the eradication rate of H. pylori when taken with a standard eradication regimen when compared with the eradication regimen alone (83476,90094).
• Hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy. Oral vitamin C does not seem to improve neuropathy in these patients. Details: In a meta-analysis of five studies in patients with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A, taking vitamin C 1-4 grams orally daily for 1 year did not improve neuropathy when compared with placebo (99084). Continuing vitamin C 4 grams daily for 2 years also does not improve neuropathy in these patients (90419).
• Interferon-related retinopathy. Oral vitamin C does not seem to improve retinopathy associated with interferon therapy. Details: A small clinical study in patients with chronic hepatitis C receiving interferon therapy shows that taking vitamin C 600 daily orally does not seem to reduce the risk of retinopathy from interferon therapy when compared with control (10355).
• Leukemia. Oral vitamin C does not seem to reduce the risk of leukemia or mortality from leukemia. Details: A large clinical trial in men aged at least 50 years shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg daily, alone or along with vitamin E 400 IU daily, for up to 10 years does not reduce the risk of developing leukemia or leukemia-related deaths when compared with placebo (90097).
• Low birth weight. Oral vitamin C does not seem to reduce the risk of infants being born with a low birth weight. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that maternal use of oral vitamin C alone or with other supplements does not reduce the risk of giving birth to infants with low birth weight when compared with control (83450,83472).
• Lung cancer. Oral vitamin C does not seem to reduce the risk of lung cancer. Details: Two meta-analyses of clinical research suggest that taking vitamin C, alone or in combination with vitamin E, does not reduce the incidence of lung cancer or lung cancer-related mortality (34528,34632). Also, a clinical study in females shows that taking supplemental vitamin C 500 mg daily, with or without vitamin E and beta carotene, is associated with an INCREASED risk of lung cancer when compared with placebo (34580). However, another large epidemiological cancer screening trial with a mean follow-up of over 12 years suggests that moderate dietary intake of vitamin C around 500 mg daily is protective against lung cancer, but higher doses of vitamin C might increase the risk of lung cancer (112096).
• Melanoma. Oral vitamin C does not seem to reduce the risk of melanoma. Details: Clinical research shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg daily, alone or along with vitamin E 400 IU daily, for up to 10 years does not reduce the risk of developing melanoma or melanoma-related deaths when compared with placebo in men aged at least 50 years (90097).
• Miscarriage. Oral vitamin C does not seem to reduce the risk of miscarriage. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking vitamin C alone or with other supplements does not reduce the risk of miscarriage when compared with control (94820).
• Overall mortality. Oral vitamin C does not reduce overall mortality. Details: Although population research suggests that higher dietary intake and higher plasma vitamin C levels are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from all causes (3910,109779), vitamin C supplementation does not seem to affect overall mortality. Meta-analyses of clinical research show that taking vitamin C supplements does not reduce overall mortality when compared with control (34622,111641). Clinical studies of vitamin C used in combination with vitamin E, beta carotene, and/or selenium and zinc, also show no benefit for overall mortality (9817,14109).
• Pancreatic cancer. Oral vitamin C does not seem to prevent pancreatic cancer. Details: Observational research has found that increased dietary vitamin C intake is associated with up to a 30% reduced risk of pancreatic cancer (99083,99086). However, clinical research shows that supplemental vitamin C 500 mg daily does not reduce the risk of pancreatic cancer in females (34580). Also, taking vitamin C in combination with beta-carotene plus vitamin E does not reduce the risk of pancreatic cancer (12185,34581).
• Pre-eclampsia. Oral vitamin C does not seem to prevent pre-eclampsia. Details: Despite some early positive research in high-risk pregnancies, the majority of meta-analyses and clinical studies show that taking vitamin C alone or with vitamin E or other supplements does not reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia when compared with control. There is even some concern that vitamin C supplementation may increase the risk of gestational hypertension (3236,83450,83472,83474,96707).
• Preterm labor. Oral vitamin C does not seem to prevent preterm labor. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that taking vitamin C alone or with other supplements does not reduce the risk of preterm labor when compared with control (83450,83472,96707).
• Prostate cancer. Oral vitamin C does not seem to prevent prostate cancer. Details: A large-scale clinical study (The SU.VI.MAX study) shows that a combination of vitamin C 120 mg, vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) 30 mg, beta-carotene 6 mg, selenium 100 mcg, and zinc 20 mg, taken daily for an average of 8 years, does not reduce the risk of prostate cancer overall. However, it might reduce the risk of prostate cancer in those who have normal PSA levels. It does not seem to be beneficial for reducing the risk of prostate cancer in patients with PSA levels above 3 mcg/L (14135). Another large scale study (Physician's Health Study II) shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg daily for an average of 8 years does not significantly reduce the risk of prostate cancer when compared with placebo (16708). Similarly, results from the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial seem to show that supplemental or dietary intake of vitamin C does not reduce the risk of prostate cancer when compared to individuals not taking vitamin C (14124).
• Radiation dermatitis. Topical vitamin C does not seem to prevent radiation dermatitis in cancer patients. Details: A small clinical study shows that applying a 10% vitamin C solution does not appear to protect from radiation dermatitis when applied to the scalps of patients treated with radiation for intracranial tumors (789).
• Small for gestational age (SGA). Oral vitamin C does not seem to reduce SGA. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that taking vitamin C alone or with other supplements does not reduce the risk of small for gestational age birth when compared with control (83450,83472).
• Stillbirth. Oral vitamin C does not seem to prevent stillbirth. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that maternal use of vitamin C alone or with other supplements does not reduce the risk of stillbirth when compared with control (83472,96707).

LIKELY INEFFECTIVE

• Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Oral vitamin C, even at high doses, does not seem to speed recovery from COVID-19 in non-hospitalized patients. Most studies show that oral or intravenous vitamin C given to patients hospitalized with COVID-19 does not improve organ function or survival, but the evidence is conflicting. It is unclear whether vitamin C is beneficial for long COVID. Details: A clinical study in adult outpatients with confirmed COVID-19 shows that taking oral vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 8000 mg in 2-3 divided doses daily, alone or with zinc gluconate 50 mg daily, for 10 days does not reduce symptom severity when compared with standard care (104450). The study was terminated prior to complete enrollment due to futility and apparent lack of effect from vitamin C and/or zinc supplementation. Limitations of this study include a lack of placebo control and blinding. Additionally, this study has been criticized for methodologic concerns (106624). Another small clinical trial in adult outpatients with confirmed COVID-19 shows that taking vitamin C 1000 mg daily for 14 days does not improve symptoms or quality of life when compared with placebo (109462). Vitamin C has also been evaluated in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. A very large analysis of two multinational clinical studies in critical and non-critical adults hospitalized with COVID-19 shows that administering intravenous vitamin C 50 mg/kg every 6 hours for 96 hours does not improve organ support-free days or survival and has a high probability of futility and worsened outcomes when compared with placebo (113666). Individual prospective and retrospective studies in critically ill patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in various countries have found that administering vitamin C, either enterally as 500-1000 mg daily or intravenously as 8-24 grams daily or 50 mg/kg daily, does not significantly reduce in-hospital or short-term mortality, hospital length of stay, or end-organ failure when compared with control groups receiving standard care alone. Additionally, all but one study found no change in the need for mechanical ventilation (105458,105465,106937,106938,108075,108079,108081). However, a meta-analysis and some small individual studies have found that vitamin C is modestly beneficial for patients hospitalized with COVID-19. A meta-analysis of 10 clinical trials and 9 observational studies in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 shows that receiving oral or intravenous vitamin C daily reduces the odds of in-hospital mortality by 41% when compared with control. When only clinical trials were considered, the odds of in-hospital mortality were decreased by 56%; however, this reduction was only identified in studies using vitamin C 10 grams daily or less. Conversely, supplementation with vitamin C increased the length of intensive care unit (ICU) stay by nearly 2 days and did not impact length of hospital stay or reduce the need for mechanical ventilation, liver injury, or cardiac injury (109955). Additionally, a small study found a small improvement in survival when compared with standard care; however, the overall survival rate in this study was low (108075). Another clinical study in patients hospitalized in Turkey with COVID-19 shows that adding high-dose intravenous sodium ascorbate 50 mg/kg to a treatment regimen of hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, and zinc may improve recovery time, with 57% and 39% of patients achieving total recovery at day 15 in the vitamin C and control groups, respectively (108071). However, the validity of this trial is limited due to unclear reporting. Additionally, these small studies were likely underpowered to detect differences between the vitamin C and control groups. Vitamin C has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients in patients with long COVID. Preliminary clinical research in adults with long COVID and persistent fatigue shows that taking a specific combination product containing vitamin C 500 mg and L-arginine 1.66 grams (Bioarginina C, Farmacetici Damor) for 28 days increases 6-minute walk test distance by 10% and reduces self-reported fatigue when compared with placebo (110390). However, it is unclear whether these effects are due to vitamin C, L-arginine, or the combination.
• Sepsis. Intravenous vitamin C, alone or in combination with thiamine and/or hydrocortisone, does not prevent organ failure, reduce intensive care or hospital length of stay, or reduce mortality in sepsis or septic shock. Details: Observational research suggests that patients with septic shock are more likely to have low plasma levels of vitamin C (100317). However, two randomized clinical trials in patients with sepsis show no benefit with intravenous vitamin C, with or without thiamine, for improving organ function and preventing organ failure when compared with control treatment (102130,104027). A clinical study in patients with septic shock shows that administering an intravenous bolus of vitamin C 1000 mg followed by a continuous infusion of 250 mg/hour for 96 hours, starting within 24 hours of vasopressor initiation, does not improve 28-day or intensive care unit (ICU) mortality when compared with placebo. A subgroup analysis shows that the addition of corticosteroids does not affect outcomes in either group (108078). This study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups. Also, a larger clinical trial in adults with sepsis receiving vasopressor therapy in the ICU shows that intravenous administration of vitamin C 50 mg/kg every 6 hours for up to 4 days increases the risk of death or persistent organ dysfunction at day 28 by 14% to 21% when compared with placebo. There were no differences in mortality at 6 months (109459,111643). Vitamin C has also been frequently studied in patients with sepsis and septic shock in a specific combination regimen (HAT therapy) which includes intravenous vitamin C 1.5-2 grams with hydrocortisone 50 mg every 6 hours and thiamine 200 mg every 12 hours. While some retrospective research has found HAT therapy to be beneficial in sepsis (100315,102980), high quality, prospective clinical research has not confirmed these findings (105447,106620,109956). Several meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials and small clinical studies in patients with sepsis or septic shock show that intravenous vitamin C, either alone, as a component of HAT therapy, or in combination with thiamine, does not reduce short- or long-term mortality, ICU or hospital length of stay, kidney injury, or duration of mechanical ventilation, but modestly improves duration of vasopressor use and procalcitonin clearance, when compared with placebo or standard care. These analyses also show mixed results with respect to improvement in sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) scores within 72 hours (105447,106620,106935,108073,109460,111298,111300,111301,111642,112479). Most studies included in the analyses administered HAT therapy for 2-10 days and compared it with normal saline control or with hydrocortisone alone (102129,102998,104027,104028,104032,105446). Although some subgroup analyses suggests that intravenous vitamin C alone in patients with sepsis may improve short-term mortality (106620,111298), other meta-analyses have not shown this benefit in subgroup analyses (111300). In addition, meta-analyses have identified significant publication bias (111298,111300). Long-term follow up from a study in patients with sepsis-induced respiratory and/or cardiovascular dysfunction shows that receiving HAT therapy does not improve cognitive, psychological, or functional status after 6 months and, for some domains, HAT therapy was worse when compared with placebo (111299). Studies evaluating intravenous vitamin C, either alone, as a component of HAT therapy, or in combination with thiamine, in mixed critically ill populations have also shown mixed findings. Four meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials and observational studies show that intravenous vitamin C does not have a significant effect on the length of hospital stay, mortality at 1 month, ICU mortality, use of invasive ventilation, use of renal replacement therapy, organ function, or incidence of kidney injury when compared with placebo or standard care. The meta-analyses reach conflicting conclusions on whether intravenous vitamin C reduces the risk of in-hospital mortality, 30-day mortality, and the duration of ICU stay. When only data from low risk-of-bias clinical trials are considered, the effects of intravenous vitamin C on mortality at any point are no longer significant (106933,106934,109957,113663). However, a subgroup analysis in one of these analyses suggests that intravenous vitamin C as monotherapy, or in doses of at least 10 grams daily, may improve overall mortality (106934). Vitamin C also does not appear to benefit complications from sepsis, such as vasoplegic shock. A small clinical study in adults in the ICU with vasoplegic shock mostly secondary to sepsis and requiring moderate vasopressor support shows that administering intravenous vitamin C as sodium ascorbate 1.5 grams every 6 hours for 5 days or until cessation of vasoactive therapy does not reduce the duration of vasopressors, vasopressor dose, hospital or ICU length of stay, or mortality outcomes when compared with placebo (112475).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Atrophic acne scars. It is unclear if applying topical vitamin C after microblading improves atrophic acne scars. Details: A clinical study in adults with mild to severe atrophic acne scarring shows that applying a serum containing vitamin C 17% to the face after a once-monthly home microblade treatment for 4 months improves the appearance of acne scars at month 5 when compared with baseline (108086). Although this study enrolled a control group that used topical insulin in place of vitamin C, no between-group statistical comparisons were conducted, limiting the validity of this study.
• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). It is unclear if dietary vitamin C or oral vitamin C taken in combination with other ingredients prevents AMD. Details: An umbrella review of meta-analyses shows that increased dietary intake of vitamin C is associated with 21% higher odds of developing AMD (112095). A population study suggests that vitamin C intake is associated with increased odds of developing age-related maculopathy (9823). However, other population studies have found no association between dietary or supplemental vitamin C intake and the risk of developing AMD (14007,14257). When taken in combination with other ingredients, most clinical and population research shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg along with other antioxidants such as vitamin E 400 IU, beta-carotene 15 mg, and/or elemental zinc 80 mg reduces the risk of visual acuity loss by 23% to 27%, progression to advanced AMD at 5 years by 25% to 32%, and AMD overall (7303,7304,11326,14257,90069). The antioxidant plus zinc combination seems to reduce the risk of progression to advanced AMD in these patients more than taking the antioxidants without zinc (7303,90069). More evidence is needed to determine what role, if any, vitamin C intake has on the risk of developing AMD.
• Aging skin. Topical vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in females aged 30-65 years shows that applying a specific liquid (Antioxidant and Collagen Booster Serum, Max Biocare Pty Ltd.) containing vitamin C 20%, red raspberry leaf cell culture extract 0.0005%, and vitamin E 1% to the face nightly for 8 weeks, in addition to regular facial skin products, improves skin color, elasticity, radiance, smoothness, and appearance of wrinkles when compared with regular facial skin products alone (102355).
• Albuminuria. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study shows that taking vitamin C 1250 mg plus vitamin E 680 IU daily for 4 weeks can reduce the excretion of albumin by about 19% when compared with placebo in patients with type 2 diabetes (10434).
• Allergic rhinitis (hay fever). It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial in patients with hay fever. Details: Epidemiological research has found that higher vitamin C plasma levels are not associated with a decreased risk of allergic rhinitis (15200). However, clinical research shows that some forms of vitamin C might help. In one small clinical study, intranasal vitamin C administered three times daily for 2 weeks reduces nasal secretions, nasal blockage, and edema in up to 74% of patients with perennial allergic rhinitis (15201). Another small clinical study in patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis shows that taking a single oral dose of vitamin C 2 grams reduces bronchial responsiveness to histamine at one hour after ingestion (15202). However, in another small study in patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis taking vitamin C orally in doses up to 4 grams daily for 3 days does not appear to suppress cutaneous or nasal response to histamine when compared to placebo (15203).
• Alzheimer disease. It is unclear if dietary vitamin C helps to prevent this condition. Details: Most epidemiological research has found that dietary intake of vitamin C is associated with a 17% reduced risk of developing Alzheimer disease (4636,9824,10131,13165,90082).
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, Lou Gehrig's disease). It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to prevent ALS. Details: Observational research has found that increased dietary or supplemental intake of vitamin C is not associated with risk of developing ALS (90412).
• Anthracycline cardiotoxicity. Although there is interest in using oral vitamin C for anthracycline-induced cardiac toxicity, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin C for this condition.
• Aspirin-associated gastric damage. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to prevent gastric damage caused by aspirin. Details: Some clinical research shows that vitamin C 480 mg might prevent gastric damage associated with taking aspirin 400 mg by decreasing blood loss and preventing decreased gastric blood flow (10357). However, a small clinical study in healthy patients shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg as ascorbic acid with aspirin 600 mg actually increases gastrointestinal permeability to a greater extent than either ingredient taken alone (98781).
• Athletic performance. It is unclear if oral vitamin C improves athletic performance. Details: Although some small preliminary clinical studies suggest that vitamin C might improve certain biomarkers during exercise (82922), a meta-analysis of small clinical trials in older and younger adults shows that taking vitamin C 500-1000 mg daily, with or without vitamin E, does not improve endurance, lean mass, or muscle strength when compared with placebo (102973). A more recent, small clinical study in recreationally trained males shows that taking vitamin C 1000 mg and vitamin E (as alpha-tocopherol) 235 mg daily for 10 weeks while participating in a resistance training program does not improve measures of muscle strength when compared with placebo (109959).
• Atopic disease. It is unclear if dietary vitamin C helps to prevent atopic disease. Details: Population research has found that higher intake of vitamin C is not associated with a reduced risk of eczema, wheeze, IgE-mediated food allergy, or allergic sensitization (90098).
• Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Small clinical studies suggest that high-dose oral vitamin C may not improve symptoms in patients with ADHD. Details: Some research suggests that taking megadose vitamins, including vitamin C, does not improve ADHD symptoms (9957,9958,9959). However, other preliminary clinical research shows that taking 25 mg of vitamin C in combination with flaxseed oil providing alpha-linolenic acid 200 mg twice daily might improve measures of attention, impulsivity, restlessness, and self-control in children with ADHD when compared with baseline (14443). It is not clear if these effects are due to vitamin C, flaxseed oil, or the combination.
• Autism spectrum disorder. It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial in patients with autism spectrum disorder. Details: One small clinical study shows that taking vitamin C 8 grams per 70 kg daily for 10 weeks modestly reduces autism symptom severity in school children when compared with placebo (83604).
• Bleeding. It is unclear if intravenous vitamin C can reduce bleeding after total abdominal hysterectomy. Details: A small clinical study in patients undergoing total abdominal hysterectomy shows that administration of intravenous vitamin C 1 gram the night before surgery and 1 gram during surgery reduces postoperative hemorrhage volume by around 40 mL when compared with placebo (109465).
• Brain tumor. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to prevent brain tumors. Details: Population research has found that vitamin C intake is associated with a 14% reduced risk of glioma. This risk reduction was more prevalent in America compared to other geographic locations (98782).
• Breast cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to prevent breast cancer, its recurrence, or breast cancer-related mortality. Details: Some epidemiological research has found that dietary vitamin C is associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer (1444,10823,10824). However, other epidemiological research has found no association with dietary or supplemental vitamin C (10825,10826,108080). One cohort study found no association between breast cancer risk and total, dietary, or supplemental vitamin C, regardless of dose, treatment duration, or formulation (single ingredient or combination product). Additionally, hormone and menopausal status did not appear to impact risk. Vitamin C intake might be associated with a reduced risk in individuals with a family history of breast cancer in first-degree relatives (108080). In patients with breast cancer, supplemental or dietary intake of vitamin C might be associated with a reduced risk of mortality. A meta-analysis of results from population research shows that vitamin C supplementation following breast cancer diagnosis is associated with a 15% lower risk of breast cancer-related mortality when compared with no supplementation (90416). A large, observational study in patients with breast cancer undergoing radiation therapy has found that vitamin C supplementation does not reduce the risk of breast cancer recurrence over a period of 5 years when compared with no supplementation. Although the vitamin C group had notably less aggressive tumor types, recurrence-free survival was similar in both vitamin C and control groups (108082). The validity of these findings is limited due to unknown doses of vitamin C and the inclusion of various breast cancer subtypes.
• Burns. Small studies suggest that intravenous vitamin C may modestly improve symptoms in patients with severe burns. Details: A small clinical study in patients with severe burns shows that administering vitamin C intravenously (IV) 66 mg/kg hourly over 24 hours, as part of fluid resuscitation using lactated ringer solution, reduces wound edema and the volume of fluid needed when compared with fluid resuscitation alone (83145). A retrospective review of adults hospitalized with severe burns has found that those who receive a continuous IV infusion of at least 10 grams of vitamin C within 2 days of admission have an in-hospital mortality rate of 46%, compared with 58% for those who do not receive vitamin C (102128).
• Cancer. It is unclear if oral or intravenous vitamin C helps to prevent cancer or cancer-related mortality. Details: Some population research has found that DIETARY intake of vitamin C is linked with a lower risk of cancer and cancer-related mortality (3910,5878,10819,109779). However, clinical research shows that taking vitamin C SUPPLEMENTS does not reduce the risk for cancer (10819,14109,34580,90097). In people with cancer, although some clinical research has shown that taking high-dose vitamin C supplements can improve survival rates (9809,96704), other clinical research has not shown this benefit (4842,4843). In 2003, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) determined that it would allow a qualified health claim stating that some scientific evidence suggests that antioxidant vitamins, such as vitamin C, may reduce the risk of certain forms of cancer. However, the FDA has determined that there is little scientific evidence supporting this claim (102334). Preliminary clinical research has also evaluated vitamin C supplements in patients with cancer. High-dose oral vitamin C, 10 grams daily, in patients with advanced cancer does not seem to improve survival or decrease disease progression (4842,4843,106617). However, preliminary clinical research suggests high doses of vitamin C, given intravenously, might have a beneficial effect on some outcomes, including survival rate in some patients with cancer (9809,96704,106617). However, there is no benefit to other patients studied in the case reports and this has not been tested in well-designed clinical trials (9809,96704).
• Cardiac arrest. It is unclear if intravenous vitamin C is beneficial for patients after cardiac arrest. Details: A small clinical study conducted in Slovenia in adult survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest shows that administering intravenous vitamin C 1.5 grams every 12 hours for 8 consecutive doses, with the first dose administered within 6 hours of resuscitation, in addition to standard care protects against arrhythmias and reduces the length of intensive care unit (ICU) stay when compared with placebo and standard care. However, intravenous vitamin C does not appear to protect against neurological or myocardial injury, reduce the need for mechanical ventilation, reduce the duration of hospital stay, or increase survival when compared with placebo (113667).
• Carpal tunnel syndrome. Vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A clinical study in adults with mild to moderate carpal tunnel syndrome shows that taking a combination product containing vitamins C, E, B1, B2, B6, and B12, alpha-lipoic acid, acetyl-L-carnitine, phosphatidylserine, and turmeric twice daily for 60 days reduces symptom severity and pain but does not improve measures of hand and wrist function when compared with control (111702). The validity of these effects is limited by a lack of blinding. The study may also be inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups. Additionally, it is unclear if the effects are due to vitamin C, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Cervical cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to prevent cervical cancer. Details: Observational research has found that higher vitamin C intake is associated with a 33% to 42% reduced odds of cervical neoplasm. Increasing vitamin C intake by 50 mg daily is associated with an 8% reduced odds of cervical neoplasm (34609,98771).
• Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Although there is interest in using oral vitamin C for CFS, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin C for this condition.
• Colistin-induced nephrotoxicity. It is unclear if intravenous vitamin C helps to prevent nephrotoxicity from colistin. Details: A small clinical study shows that intravenous administration of vitamin C 2 grams every 12 hours along with colistin for around 9-10 days does not prevent nephrotoxicity when compared with colistin therapy alone (99839). However, this study was limited by a lack of statistical power to detect differences between the study groups.
• Contrast induced nephropathy. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN). Details: Some clinical research shows that taking vitamin C before and after coronary angiography reduces the risk of developing CIN by 33% to 55% when compared with placebo in patients with renal dysfunction (12234,90421). However, other clinical evidence published since 2012 suggests that vitamin C given orally and/or intravenously before and after angiography does not reduce the risk of CIN compared with control in high-risk patients with chronic renal insufficiency or diabetes (91232,91236,90410,90425). Reasons for the discrepancies are not entirely clear. However, it is possible that the lack of significant benefit from vitamin C in the latter studies results from the fact that incidences of CIN have become less common than in the past due to avoidance of dehydration, use of smaller catheters, and use of contrast agents with reduced nephrotoxicity (90429).
• Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. It is unclear if intravenous vitamin C helps to improve patient outcomes after CABG surgery. Details: A small clinical study shows that giving vitamin C 5 grams intravenously (IV) before anesthesia induction and 5 grams in the cardioplegia solution used during surgery shortens the length of stay in the intensive care unit (ICU) by about 8 hours (102127). However, some limited research suggests that IV vitamin C does not resolve cardiac surgery complications. A small clinical study in patients with vasoplegia after receiving CABG and other cardiac surgeries shows that receiving IV vitamin C 1.5 grams every 6 hours after being admitted to the ICU does not improve vasoplegia when compared with control (102981).
• Delirium. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Observational research in adults with septic shock has found that receiving intravenous thiamine 400 mg daily with vitamin C 6 grams daily, both in divided doses, is not associated with reduced delirium when compared with control (103001).
• Dental plaque. It is unclear if vitamin C in a chewing gum helps to reduce dental plaque formation. Details: A small clinical study in patients with calculus shows that chewing 10 pieces of gum, each containing 60 mg of vitamin C, daily for 3 months reduces the formation of dental calculus, visible plaque, and the number of bleeding sites when compared not chewing gum (83303). The validity of this finding is limited by a lack of placebo group.
• Depression. It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial for the treatment or prevention of depression. Details: A small clinical study in children and adolescents shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg orally twice daily in combination with fluoxetine 10-20 mg daily for 6 months reduces most symptoms of major depressive disorder when compared with taking fluoxetine alone (90404). However, a small clinical study in adults shows that taking vitamin C up to 1000 mg daily for 2 months does not improve the response rate or decrease symptoms of depression in adults also taking citalopram when compared with citalopram alone (96708). Reasons for these conflicting results may relate to the age of the patients, study duration, or differences in antidepressant medication being taken. One clinical guideline also provisionally recommends against the use of oral vitamin C to treat patients with depression based on low-quality evidence (110318). Some research has also evaluated vitamin C intake for the prevention of depression. A secondary analysis of pre- and peri-menopausal adults enrolled in the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) program suggests that vitamin C intake is inversely associated with depressive symptoms. This association persisted regardless of age, race, physical activity, body mass index, antidepressant use or menopausal status (108083). The validity of these findings is limited due to the secondary nature of this study; additionally, follow-up time is unclear.
• Diabetes. It is unclear if oral vitamin C prevents diabetes. Some low-quality research suggests that vitamin C might improve glycemic control in patients with diabetes. Details: Population research has not found a link between dietary vitamin C and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (14004). However, low certainty clinical research has found some benefit of taking vitamin C supplements for glycemic control. Two meta-analyses of several small, heterogeneous clinical studies in patients with type 2 diabetes show that taking vitamin C 200-3000 mg daily for 2-48 weeks reduces fasting blood glucose by approximately 11 mg/dL (112478) and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) by an average of 0.5% when compared with placebo, standard treatment, or no treatment (105461,112478). Subgroup analyses suggest that durations of supplementation longer than 12 weeks show greater glycemic benefit, and although one meta-analysis suggests there is no dose-response relationship (105461), another meta-analysis suggests that doses of vitamin C 1000 mg and higher are most beneficial for improving glycemic indices (112478). Some research has evaluated the effects of vitamin C supplementation on the lipid profile in patients with diabetes, with mixed findings. One meta-analysis of 17 small clinical studies shows that taking vitamin C 200-3000 mg daily for 2 to 48 weeks improves levels of triglycerides and total cholesterol, but not low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Subgroup analysis suggests that study durations of at least 12 weeks show greater benefit (106621). However, two other meta-analyses in patients with diabetes, one of 16 small heterogenous clinical studies and one of 11 small clinical studies, show no clinically important improvement in lipid levels after vitamin C supplementation (105461,105464).
• Dry mouth. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with vitamin E; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial in patients receiving radiotherapy for head and neck cancer shows that taking vitamin E 100 IU and vitamin C 500 mg twice daily for an average of 3 months improves dry mouth when compared to baseline (99080). The validity of these results is limited by the lack of comparison with a control group.
• Endometrial cancer. Increased dietary vitamin C has been linked to reduced risk of endometrial cancer. Details: Population research has found that intake of vitamin C from dietary sources is associated with a slightly decreased risk of endometrial cancer when compared with control. However, this benefit is not observed when results from a prospective cohort study are assessed (34578).
• Endometriosis. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with vitamin E; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with endometriosis and pelvic pain shows that taking vitamin C 1000 mg and vitamin E 800 IU daily for 8 weeks improves dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, and chronic pelvic pain scores when compared with placebo. Vitamin C and vitamin E supplementation also reduces some biochemical markers of oxidative stress when compared with placebo (106622).
• Endoscopy-associated adverse effects. It is unclear if a topical vitamin C spray reduces mucosal irritation in patients undergoing Lugol chromoendoscopy. Details: A small clinical trial in patients receiving a Lugol chromoendoscopy shows that spraying a vitamin C 2% solution after the application of the Lugol iodine 2% solution reduces the severity of mucosal irritation, heartburn, and pain when compared with using a normal saline spray after the Lugol iodine 2% solution (104030).
• Esophageal cancer. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin C is associated with reduced odds of esophageal adenocarcinoma. A 50 gram increase in dietary vitamin C intake is associated with a 13% reduced odds of esophageal cancer (34551,98770). However, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking a vitamin C supplement in combination with beta-carotene and vitamin E does not reduce the risk of esophageal cancer (34581).
• Exercise-induced asthma. Small clinical studies suggest that oral vitamin C may modestly improve symptoms in patients with exercise-induced asthma. Details: A meta-analysis of the available clinical research shows that vitamin C supplementation might reduce exercise-induced breathlessness when compared with placebo or control. However, the available research is of poor quality, and no clear conclusions can be drawn regarding its benefits for exercise-induced asthma (90409).
• Exercise-induced muscle damage. It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial in exercise-induced muscle damage. Details: A small clinical study in healthy females shows that taking vitamin C 1000 mg before moderate intensity cycling does not prevent muscle damage when compared with placebo (99837). Another small clinical study in endurance-trained runners shows that taking vitamin C 1000 mg and vitamin E (as alpha-tocopherol) 235 mg 2 hours prior to an exercise protocol does not reduce delayed onset muscle soreness or improve other markers of exercise-induced muscle damage when compared with placebo (109961).
• Gallbladder disease. It is unclear if oral vitamin C reduces the risk of gallbladder disease. Details: Cross-sectional epidemiological evidence has found that vitamin C supplementation and increased vitamin C serum levels are associated with a decreased risk of developing gallbladder disease in females, but not males (5877).
• Gastric cancer. It is unclear if dietary or supplemental vitamin C reduces the risk of gastric cancer. Details: Most population research has not found an association between DIETARY intake of vitamin C and gastric cancer risk (9194,10822,10819,90083). Also, clinical research shows that taking vitamin C supplements in combination with other antioxidants does not reduce the risk of gastric cancer or precancerous gastric lesions (14447,34581,90085). However, some research suggests that it might be associated with a reduced risk for specific forms of gastric cancer (9838,90083). One clinical study shows that taking vitamin C orally 500 mg daily for 6 months after eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection decreases the incidence of precancerous changes in stomach tissue when compared with no treatment (10359). Also, other clinical research shows that taking vitamin C orally 1 gram daily helps promote the regression of precancerous gastric lesions in people at high risk for gastric cancer (2579). In 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) determined that it would allow a qualified health claim stating that vitamin C supplements may reduce the risk of gastric cancer. However, the FDA has concluded that it is highly uncertain that vitamin C supplements actually reduce the risk of gastric cancer (102332).
• Gastritis. There is limited evidence on the oral use of vitamin C in omeprazole-induced corpus gastritis. Details: A small clinical study shows that taking vitamin C orally 1200 mg daily along with omeprazole decreases corpus gastritis associated with omeprazole therapy in patients with H. pylori infection (10360).
• Gout. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to prevent or manage gout. Details: Population research in men has found that taking vitamin C 500-1500 mg daily from the diet and/or supplements is associated with up to a 34% reduced risk of gout when compared with less than 250 mg daily (16755). Also, men who ingest over 500 mg of vitamin C daily from the diet and supplements have serum uric acid levels that are slightly lower than men who consume less than 90 mg daily (16820). However, taking supplemental vitamin C 500 mg daily for 8 weeks does not seem to lower serum uric acid levels in patients who already have gout (90423).
• Hearing loss. There is limited evidence on the intravenous use of vitamin C in idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss. It is unclear if dietary vitamin C intake can affect the risk of hearing loss. Details: A small clinical study in patients with idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss shows that receiving intravenous high-dose vitamin C 200 mg/kg daily in combination with steroid therapy for 10 days, followed by oral vitamin C 2000 mg daily for 30 days, increases recovery rate two-fold and modestly improves hearing threshold levels when compared with receiving steroid therapy only (90417). In addition, population research in females has found that high dietary intake of vitamin C is associated with a 22% increased risk of developing self-reported hearing loss over a 22-year period when compared with low intake (109807).
• Heart transplant complications. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial shows that a combination of vitamin C 500 mg and vitamin E 400 IU, taken twice daily for 1 year starting within the first 2 years after cardiac transplant, reduced the progression of vasculopathy as measured by intravascular ultrasonography (IVUS) when compared with placebo. This suggests that the combination may help slow the progression of CAV (82826).
• Hepatitis C. It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial in patients with hepatitis C. Details: A small clinical study in patients with confirmed hepatitis C shows that taking vitamin C 1000 mg daily with conventional therapy (sofosbuvir plus daclatasvir) for 4 weeks improves serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), bilirubin, and albumin when compared with conventional therapy alone (109463).
• HIV/AIDS. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small, low-quality study in men with HIV shows that taking vitamin C 250 mg daily in combination with vitamin A, beta-carotene, vitamin E, selenium, and coenzyme Q10 does not improve viral load, although it seems to improve markers of oxidative stress when compared to baseline. However, a 1000 mg dose of vitamin C, as well as higher doses of the other antioxidants, do not seem to provide any additional effect (9830).
• HIV transmission. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A clinical study in HIV-positive mothers shows that taking vitamin B, vitamin C, and vitamin E daily during pregnancy and while breast-feeding for 20 weeks seems to reduce child mortality and HIV transmission through breast milk when compared with taking vitamin A (9801).
• Hyperphosphatemia. Intravenous vitamin C might be beneficial for reducing phosphate levels in patients with end-stage renal disease. Details: A small clinical study in hemodialysis patients with elevated phosphorus levels suggests that administering vitamin C 500 mg intravenously three times weekly for 8 weeks reduces phosphorus levels about seven-fold when compared with placebo (90414).
• Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, a form of idiopathic interstitial pneumonia, shows that taking a combination of vitamin C 250 mg every other day, vitamin D 50,000 IU daily, and vitamin E 200 IU daily for 12 weeks improves some, but not all, measures of lung function and reduces markers of inflammation and oxidative stress when compared to baseline (109464). The validity of these findings is limited by a lack of placebo control group.
• Infertility. It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial in anovulatory females. Details: A very small clinical study suggests that taking vitamin C 400-1000 mg daily might improve fertility, resulting in ovulation and pregnancy in some anovulatory females, when compared to baseline (14018). The validity of these findings is limited by the small study size and lack of a comparator group. However, a very large observational study suggests that there is no association between dietary vitamin C intake and in-vitro fertilization (IVF) outcomes including good oocyte quality, embryo transfer success rates, clinical pregnancy rates, and successful term pregnancy rates in subfertile couples who are candidates for IVF (112097).
• Male infertility. It is unclear if oral or intravenous vitamin C is beneficial in males with infertility. Details: A meta-analysis of three small, low-quality clinical trials in males with infertility shows that taking vitamin C up to 1000 mg daily for up to 12 weeks can improve sperm count, motility, and vitality, but does not seem to increase semen volume or sperm concentration, when compared with control (109461). It is unclear if vitamin C can increase pregnancy rates, as these studies did not assess this outcome. A retrospective study in males with or without varicocele-related infertility has found that taking a specific combination product containing vitamin C 90 mg, zinc 10 mg, L-carnitine fumarate 1725 mg, acetyl-L-carnitine 500 mg, coenzyme Q10 20 mg, folic acid 0.2 mg, selenium 0.05 mg, and vitamin B12 0.015 mg (Proxeed Plus, Sigma-Tau) orally twice daily for 6 months improves sperm count, sperm concentration, and sperm motility when compared with baseline. Improvement in semen parameters were greatest in subjects with more severe varicoceles. The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group (111296).
• Mastalgia. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with mastalgia shows that taking a combination of vitamin C 100 mg, vitamin B12, and gamma-linolenic acid daily for 12 weeks does not improve the proportion of patients with minimal or no pain when compared with placebo (111059).
• Melasma. It is unclear if topical vitamin C is beneficial in patients with melasma. Details: A small clinical study in patients with bilateral symmetrically distributed facial melasma shows that topical application of 0.5 mL of vitamin C (Cosmotech, Alpha Medical Cosmotech) following dermapen microneedling every 2 weeks for 6 weeks is similarly effective to tranexamic acid for improving melasma severity and pigmented, but not vascular, findings on dermoscopic examination (106939).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial in patients with NAFLD. Details: A clinical study in patients with NAFLD shows that taking vitamin C 250 mg, 1000 mg, or 2000 mg daily for 12 weeks improves some biochemical markers of liver health and glucose metabolism when compared with baseline. However, the improvement from baseline was similar between groups (106942).
• Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research suggests vitamin C in combination with vitamin E might improve hepatic fibrosis in patients with NASH. However, it does not seem to decrease liver inflammation (14005).
• Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is unclear if oral vitamin C reduces the risk of developing diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Details: In one population study, higher dietary or supplemental intake of vitamin C was associated with a reduced risk of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, a type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, when compared with lower intake in postmenopausal adults (90945).
• Oral cancer. It is unclear if oral vitamin C reduces the risk of developing oral cancer. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin C is associated with a reduced risk of oral cancer (10821). However, clinical research has not shown benefit with oral vitamin C supplements. A small clinical trial in Japanese adults with oral leukoplakia shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg and beta-carotene 10 mg daily for 12 months does not reduce the development of oral cancer over 5 years when compared with vitamin C 50 mg daily (91384).
• Oral leukoplakia. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical trial in Japanese adults with oral leukoplakia shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg and beta-carotene 10 mg daily for 12 months does not improve leukoplakia symptoms or reduce the development of oral cancer over 5 years when compared with vitamin C 50 mg daily (91384).
• Osteoarthritis. It is unclear if dietary vitamin C reduces the risk of developing osteoarthritis. Details: Observational research has found that increased vitamin C from dietary sources is associated with a reduced risk of cartilage loss and disease progression in people with osteoarthritis (5881).
• Osteoporosis. It is unclear if dietary vitamin C improves bone density or reduces fracture risk in patients at risk for osteoporosis. Details: Some cross-sectional observational research in postmenopausal patients without a history of smoking or estrogen use has found that higher serum vitamin C levels are associated with lower bone mineral density (9828). However, other observational research in a larger population of adults at risk for osteoporosis has found that higher dietary vitamin C intake is not associated with fracture risk (104415).
• Ovarian cancer. Dietary vitamin C might not affect the risk of ovarian cancer. Details: Epidemiological research has found that dietary vitamin C intake is not linked with ovarian cancer risk (9193,102977).
• Pancreatitis. It is unclear if intravenous vitamin C is beneficial in patients with acute pancreatitis. Details: A small meta-analysis of clinical studies in patients with acute pancreatitis shows that intravenous vitamin C does not improve the odds of developing organ failure when compared with placebo or no intervention. Intravenous vitamin C seems to reduce hospital stay, but not in-hospital mortality (106941).
• Parkinson disease. Dietary vitamin C might not affect the risk of developing this condition. Details: Observational research has found that moderate or high dietary intake of vitamin C is not associated with a reduced risk of Parkinson disease (83316).
• Periodontitis. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. It is also unclear if dietary vitamin C reduces the risk of periodontitis. Details: A small clinical study in patients with moderate or advanced periodontitis shows that taking a supplement containing vitamin C 100 mg, alpha-lipoic acid, coenzyme Q10, cranberry extract, grapeseed extract, selenium, vitamin E, and zinc twice daily for 8 weeks in addition to standard nonsurgical therapy does not improve periodontal indices including bleeding on probing, gingival recession, plaque index, or inflammation, among others, when compared with placebo (111708). It is unclear if these effects are due to vitamin C, other ingredients, or the combination. There is also interest in whether dietary vitamin C intake impacts the risk of periodontitis. Observational research in US adults has found that individuals with dietary intake of vitamin C in the third quartile, but not the second or fourth quartiles, have lower odds of periodontitis when compared with vitamin C intake in the lowest quartile. Furthermore, the investigators identified a non-linear relationship between vitamin C intake and periodontitis risk, suggesting that individuals with intakes either much lower or much higher than 158 mg daily are at increased risk of developing periodontitis (109958).
• Peripheral arterial disease (PAD). It is unclear if dietary vitamin C helps to reduce the risk of developing PAD. Details: In females, epidemiological evidence has found that dietary intake of vitamin C of 142 mg daily or greater is associated with a 36% reduced risk of PAD when compared with lower intake levels of less than 80 mg daily (10130).
• Physical performance. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to improve physical performance and muscle strength in older people. Details: Population research has found that higher intake of dietary vitamin C is associated with improved physical performance and muscle strength in elderly people (14006). In contrast, a small clinical study in elderly men undergoing strength training shows that taking vitamin C 1000 mg and vitamin E 258IU daily for 12 weeks does not increase strength, and might even attenuate increases in muscle mass, when compared with strength training alone (96701).
• Pneumonia. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to prevent pneumonia. Details: A meta-analysis of two small, low-quality clinical studies in children shows that vitamin C does not seem to reduce the occurrence of pneumonia when compared to control (104033).
• Postoperative recovery. It is unclear if oral or intravenous vitamin C improves postoperative recovery. Details: Meta-analyses of clinical research show that oral or intravenous vitamin C can shorten the duration of hospitalization after cardiac surgery when compared with control (91233,96703). However, other research shows no decrease in intensive care or hospital stay with vitamin C supplementation (96705). A meta-analysis of 37 clinical trials in adults undergoing low- to high-risk noncardiac surgery (i.e., orthopedic, abdominal, gynecologic, or kidney transplantation), shows that receiving perioperative vitamin C, either orally or intravenously, does not improve duration of hospitalization or overall mortality when compared with control (108087). There's also some limited evidence that vitamin C might reduce postoperative pulmonary complications such as lung infection, pleural effusion, and pneumothorax. A small clinical trial in low-risk cardiac surgery patients shows that receiving intravenous vitamin C 1 gram 10 minutes after anesthesia might slightly reduce the rate of postoperative pulmonary complications when compared with receiving a saline injection (104034).
• Postoperative swelling. It is unclear if vitamin C reduces postoperative swelling after dental surgery. Details: A small observational study in adults undergoing surgery for wisdom tooth extraction shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg three times daily for 7 days in addition to standard treatment reduces swelling 7 days after surgery when compared with control. However, vitamin C does not seem to reduce swelling 3 days after surgery when compared with control, suggesting that longer durations are needed for anti-inflammatory effects (113664).
• Premature rupture of membranes (PROM). Oral vitamin C seems to reduce the risk of PROM in some patients; however, the addition of oral vitamin E seems to negate any benefit. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking vitamin C alone decreases the risk of both term and preterm PROM by 45% and 34%, respectively, when compared with placebo or control (96707). Also, a more recent clinical study in patients with a history of PROM shows that taking vitamin C 100 mg daily, starting at 14 weeks' gestation, increases the gestational age at recurrent PROM by around 1 week and increases the gestational age at birth by around 1.3 weeks when compared with placebo (109960). Taking vitamin C in combination with vitamin E, however, does not seem to reduce the risk of term or preterm PROM; some research suggests that it might even increase the risk of non-preterm PROM (83472,96707). However, other research shows that taking vitamin C 1000 mg plus vitamin E 400 IU daily, beginning at 24 to 34 weeks gestation and continuing until delivery, may help increase the latency period until delivery by 5 days and increase gestational age at delivery by almost 1 week when compared with placebo in patients with preterm PROM (90078).
• Pressure ulcers. It is unclear if oral vitamin C, when used alone or in combination with other ingredients, can improve the healing of pressure ulcers. Details: A small clinical study in institutionalized patients with pressure ulcers shows that taking vitamin C 500 mg twice daily for 12 weeks does not improve wound closure or increase healing rates when compared with vitamin C 10 mg twice daily (83617). Oral vitamin C has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients for the treatment of grade II-IV pressure ulcers. Two small clinical studies in hospitalized patients with pressure ulcers shows that administering an oral nutritional supplement enriched with vitamin C, L-arginine, and zinc improves ulcer healing when compared with a standard diet (31953,87173). Also, clinical research in patients living in long-term care facilities shows that taking an oral nutritional supplement enriched in protein, vitamin C, L-arginine, and zinc daily for 9 weeks reduces ulcer area and decreases oozing when compared to baseline (32045). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Radiation proctopathy. Oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with vitamin E; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with chronic radiation proctitis shows that vitamin C 500 mg plus vitamin E 400 IU three times daily might improve symptoms when compared with baseline (9825). The validity of these findings is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Renal cell carcinoma. It is unclear if increased dietary intake of vitamin C helps to reduce the risk of renal cell carcinoma. Details: Population research has found that increased dietary intake of vitamin C is associated with a 12% reduced risk of renal cell carcinoma (98779).
• Respiratory tract infections. It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial for preventing respiratory tract infections or reducing the duration of these infections. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in children and adults shows that, when compared with placebo, oral vitamin C supplementation reduces the average number of symptomatic days per individual, but does not reduce the average symptom days per respiratory episode. Also, vitamin C intake does not reduce the incidence or severity of respiratory disease or improve recovery in hospitalized patients with respiratory tract infections (108077). The validity of this trial is limited by the high heterogeneity of included studies, which evaluated various vitamin C regimens, ranging from 100 mg to 8 grams daily, as preventive therapy or as an adjuvant to active treatment. A clinical study in children aged 3-10 years shows that taking vitamin C 50 mg in combination with a specific product (Lab4) containing Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis daily for 6 months reduces the incidence of cough and sore throat by 16% and 20%, respectively, when compared with placebo. However, it did not improve total symptoms, nasal congestion, nasal discharge, or sneezing. Also, aside from a 33% reduction in the average number of days with a sore throat, daily supplementation does not reduce the duration of individual symptoms or total symptoms (106943). It is unclear if these effects are due to vitamin C, the probiotics, or the combination.
• Restless legs syndrome (RLS). It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to reduce symptoms of stress. Details: A small clinical study in hemodialysis patients with RLS shows that taking vitamin C 200 mg daily, alone or in combination with vitamin E 400 mg, for 8 weeks reduces the severity of RLS when compared with placebo (90093). More research is needed to determine if vitamin C is beneficial in treating RLS that is not associated with hemodialysis.
• Smoking cessation. It is unclear whether supplemental vitamin C improves lung function in the offspring of pregnant adults with tobacco use disorder. Details: A meta-analysis of large clinical studies in pregnant adults who smoke at least one cigarette daily shows that taking supplemental vitamin C 500 mg daily during pregnancy reduces lower airway resistance and improves lung capacity of the offspring but does not improve airway obstruction when compared with control (113670).
• Sunburn. Topical and oral vitamin C has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Taking vitamin C orally in combination with vitamin E seems to prevent ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced erythema (sunburn) (4715,4716). Vitamin C in combination with high dose oral RRR-alpha-tocopherol (natural vitamin E) seems to protect against skin inflammation after exposure to UV radiation (4715). Also, applying topical vitamin C in combination with topical vitamin E and melatonin seems to provide modest photoprotective effects when used prior to UV exposure. However, it has no effect when used during or after UV exposure (4713,4714).
• Stress. It is unclear if oral vitamin C helps to reduce symptoms of stress. Details: A small clinical study in healthy adults shows that taking vitamin C 3000 mg daily for 14 days modestly reduces blood pressure and subjective stress response to psychological stress when compared with placebo (10353).
• Stroke. Observational research has found that although taking vitamin C supplements does not seem to be beneficial, eating more vitamin C-rich food is linked with reduced risk of stroke. Details: Lower plasma levels of vitamin C have been associated with increased stroke risk (90408). Additionally, population research has found that higher dietary intake of vitamin C is associated with a 8% to 19% reduction in stroke risk when compared to lower intake (90408,109779). This reduction appears to be dose-dependent, with each 100 mg/day increase in dietary vitamin C intake associated with about a 17% reduction (90408). However, taking vitamin C supplements has not been found to be associated with reduced stroke risk (1449,90408).
• Tetanus. It is unclear if intravenous vitamin C helps to reduce symptoms of tetanus. Details: A low quality clinical trial in children and young adults with tetanus shows that intravenous vitamin C 1 gram daily along with conventional treatment reduces fatality when compared to control (21539).
• Tooth extraction. It is unclear if oral vitamin C is beneficial for reducing pain or improving healing after tooth extraction. Details: A small clinical study in healthy patients aged 14-41 years who are undergoing bilateral premolar extraction shows that taking vitamin C 200 mg three times daily, beginning immediately after extraction and continued for 10 days, improves pain on days 1-3, and may reduce mesio-distal wound size between days 1 and 7, when compared with placebo, but not when compared with vitamin C 500 mg three times daily. A dose of 500 mg three times daily did not improve pain scores or extraction wound healing when compared with placebo (108084). The validity of this trial is limited by the short duration of treatment; additionally, this study did not report baseline vitamin C levels.
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). Although there is interest in using oral vitamin C for UTIs, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of vitamin C for this condition.
• Vascular dementia. It is unclear if oral vitamin C reduces the risk of vascular dementia. Details: Population research has found that supplemental intake of vitamin C and vitamin E is associated with a reduced risk of vascular dementia in Japanese-American men (4636). However, when cases in which dementia was diagnosed prior to the study are excluded from data analysis, intake of vitamin C and vitamin E is not associated with a reduced risk of vascular dementia in these patients (9824).
• Wound healing. It is unclear if oral vitamin C improves the healing of chronic foot ulcers. It is also unclear if intravenous vitamin C improves healing of surgical wounds after total abdominal hysterectomy. Details: A very small clinical study in adults with chronic foot ulcers shows that taking slow-release vitamin C 500 mg daily for 8 weeks seems to result in a median of 100% ulcer healing, compared with a median of 14% ulcer healing in patients taking glucosamine 1000 mg daily (105456). This finding is limited due to the small and heterogeneous patient population, which included patients with diabetes, vascular disease, and/or vitamin C deficiency. Another small clinical study in patients undergoing total abdominal hysterectomy shows that administration of intravenous vitamin C 1 gram the night before surgery and 1 gram during surgery does not reduce the rate of surgical site infection or wound dehiscence when compared with placebo (109465). However, this study may not have been adequately powered to detect differences between groups. More evidence is needed to rate vitamin C for these uses.

(Read more about VITAMIN C)

EFFECTIVE

• Zinc deficiency. Orally or intravenously, zinc is effective for treating and preventing zinc deficiency. Details: Taking zinc orally or intravenously prevents and treats zinc deficiency (2619). However, routine zinc supplementation is not recommended (403). Zinc deficiency requiring supplementation may occur in patients with severe diarrhea, malabsorption syndromes, liver cirrhosis, and alcoholism; after major surgery, renal failure, and dialysis; or during long-term administration of total parenteral nutrition (3900,24321). Zinc supplementation (136 mg of elemental zinc per day) in patients with cirrhosis and zinc deficiency seems to improve liver function and glucose tolerance, possibly by increasing insulin-like growth factor (8624,87520).

LIKELY EFFECTIVE

• Diarrhea. Oral zinc reduces duration and severity of acute diarrhea in malnourished children. Doses of 5-20 mg seem to be effective, while 5-10 mg daily is less likely to cause vomiting. Details: Most research, including meta-analyses and over 30 clinical trials, show that taking zinc orally reduces the duration and severity of acute and persistent diarrhea in malnourished or zinc-deficient children, but not in well-nourished children (87236,96074). Most studies have been conducted in Bangladesh and India, so it is unclear if these findings are generalizable to other geographic locations. The most comprehensive meta-analysis of clinical studies in children older than 6 months shows that zinc supplementation reduces the duration of acute diarrhea by about 11 hours and the duration of persistent diarrhea by about 16 hours when compared with placebo. However, zinc does not seem to reduce the duration of acute diarrhea in children younger than 6 months. Zinc supplementation seems to have the greatest benefit in children with clear malnutrition and diarrhea. In these children, zinc reduces diarrhea duration by about 26 hours and reduces the risk of diarrhea persisting through days 3, 5, and 7 by 18% to 24% when compared with placebo. There was no clear benefit of using zinc in a specific dose or salt form. The most common dose of zinc was 20 mg daily and salt forms included zinc sulfate, gluconate, and acetate (96074). Also, a large clinical trial in children with acute diarrhea shows that taking zinc 5 or 10 mg daily for 14 days is non-inferior to taking 20 mg. Furthermore, zinc 5 or 10 mg results in a respective 29% and 19% lower risk of vomiting within the first 30 minutes when compared with zinc 20 mg (104045). It's unclear whether zinc supplementation reduces mortality in children with diarrhea. A meta-analysis of clinical research in children under the age of five years shows that supplementation with zinc reduces the risk of mortality from diarrhea by 15% when compared with either placebo, other vitamin and/or mineral supplementation, or no supplementation (106239). However, many studies were conducted in hospitals where rates of mortality are low and were not adequately powered to determine whether zinc has an effect on mortality in children with acute diarrhea (87210,96074,106239).
• Wilson disease. Taking zinc orally improves symptoms of this condition. Details: Zinc acetate (Galzin) is an FDA-approved orphan drug for treating this condition. Zinc blocks copper absorption and increases copper elimination in the stool of people with Wilson disease (2692,2693,87327). Small clinical studies suggest that taking zinc after 8 weeks of treatment with tetrathiomolybdate alone can improve Kayser-Fleischer rings, urine copper levels, and neurological symptoms for up to 6 years post-treatment (63588,87491).

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE

• Acne. Orally, zinc might help to reduce symptoms of acne. However, it's unclear how oral zinc compares to conventional acne treatments. Topical zinc doesn't seem to be beneficial if used alone. Details: Observational research has found that people with acne seem to have lower zinc levels in the serum and skin (104056). A meta-analysis of small, low quality clinical trials suggests that taking zinc sulfate or zinc gluconate 137-300 mg 2-3 times daily by mouth can modestly improve acne when compared with placebo (104056). However, not all individual trials show benefit (87002,104056). So far, it is not clear how oral zinc compares to other treatments. Trials comparing zinc sulfate with various tetracyclines have yielded conflicting results (6505,6506,86946,106233). One large open-label clinical trial shows that taking zinc sulfate 200 mg twice daily for 12 weeks is at least as effective as lymecycline 300 mg daily for reducing acne severity. Quality of life related to acne was modestly improved in the patients using zinc sulfate (106233). However, in another clinical trial, a 3-month treatment of oral zinc gluconate 30 mg daily reduced the number of acne lesions from baseline, but was not as effective as minocycline (86946). When applied topically, clinical research shows that zinc does not help treat acne when compared with placebo (87297,104056). However, when used in combination with erythromycin, topical zinc seems to result in improvement (819,820,2687,2688).
• Acrodermatitis enteropathica. Oral zinc seems to improve symptoms of this rare genetic disorder. Details: Multiple case reports have found that taking oral zinc seems to help improve symptoms of acrodermatitis enteropathica, a rare disorder (821,2689,2690,2691). One case report in a female with necrolytic acral erythema and hepatitis C suggests that adding oral zinc sulfate 225 mg twice daily to interferon alfa-2b for 6 months contributed to resolving all lesions. Necrolytic acral erythema is categorized in the family of necrolytic erythemas that includes acrodermatitis enteropathica (6192).
• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Oral zinc, especially in combination with antioxidant vitamins, seems to slow the progression of AMD. Details: Clinical research shows that taking elemental zinc 80 mg plus vitamin C 500 mg, vitamin E 400 IU, and beta-carotene 15 mg daily reduces the odds of progression to advanced AMD by 28%. In patients with more severe AMD, this combination reduced the odds of progression to advanced AMD by 34%. This combination also reduced the odds of visual acuity loss by 27% in patients with severe AMD (7303,11326). However, there is contradictory evidence about the effects of zinc plus antioxidants on visual acuity loss or the progression to advanced AMD in low-risk patients with AMD (6583,6584,7303). Some clinical evidence shows that, when taken without antioxidant vitamins, zinc supplementation does not slow the progression of existing AMD (6580,90069). However, a subgroup analysis of results from a large clinical trial that included patients with intermediate or advanced AMD suggests that the effect of zinc on AMD progression might vary depending on a patient's genetic predisposition. Complement factor H (CFH) and age-related maculopathy susceptibility 2 (ARMS2) are two genes for which specific variations (i.e., risk alleles) have been associated with an increased risk of AMD. Results from the retrospective subgroup analysis suggest that zinc supplementation may DECREASE the progression of AMD in patients with ARMS2 risk alleles and INCREASE the progression of AMD in patients with CFH risk alleles (90193). However, some experts question the results from this analysis due to the retrospective nature of the study (93045). Another retrospective analysis of similar data found that only zinc plus antioxidants, but not zinc alone, was beneficial for slowing the progression of AMD, regardless of the patient's genotype (93046). Consequently, the American Academy of Ophthalmology does not currently recommend routine genetic screening to determine which patients would benefit from zinc, antioxidants, or the combination. Instead, patients with intermediate or advanced AMD are recommended to take an antioxidant and zinc supplement similar to those used in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) and the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) (93047). Large scale population studies suggest that increasing dietary intake of zinc might reduce the risk of developing AMD (6579,14257).
• Child growth. Oral zinc seems to increase growth when taken by children and improve infant growth in the first year of life when taken by pregnant adults. Details: A meta-analysis of 8 clinical studies in healthy children over 2 years old shows that taking supplemental zinc 5-15 mg daily for 6-56 weeks modestly increases height and weight when compared with placebo. This analysis also shows that taking zinc may improve height for age, but not weight for age when compared with placebo (112474). Most of these studies were conducted in developing countries; results may not apply elsewhere. Another clinical study in pregnant adults in Peru shows that taking zinc 15 mg daily in addition to iron and folic acid, starting during the first or second trimester and continuing up to one month after delivery, modestly improves growth measures of infants at one year when compared with taking iron and folic acid alone. Improved growth measures include body weight, calf and chest circumference, and calf muscle area (87130).
• Common cold. Oral zinc seems to help treat cold symptoms in adults. However, it is unclear if zinc is beneficial for common cold prevention. Details: Using zinc oral lozenges seems to be beneficial in helping TREAT the common cold in adults. The majority of clinical trials and analyses of clinical research show a significant decrease in the duration of symptoms of the common cold when adults take zinc gluconate or zinc acetate lozenges providing 9-24 mg of elemental zinc per dose. It is recommended that lozenges be taken every 2 hours while awake, starting within 48 hours of symptom onset for a total daily dose of at least 75 mg in order to attain a mean cold duration reduction of 3 days (333,334,335,337,6703,6705,87501,92212,106902). However, not all studies have been positive (333,338,339,6522,6700,87512). The reasons for these different findings are not clear, but might be due to differences in zinc formulations and doses and study methodologies. In some cases, flavoring agents such as citric acid, mannitol, and sorbitol might chelate zinc and decrease zinc ionization. Since ionization is thought to be necessary for zinc activity, a decrease in zinc ionization could decrease effectiveness (300,340,6522). Some of the positive studies have also been criticized for inadequately blinding the unpleasant, distinctive taste of zinc (6522,6706). Allergy and smoking status do not appear to impact the efficacy of zinc acetate lozenges (92212). Overall, zinc products may be beneficial for modestly reducing the duration of symptoms of the common cold in adults, but adverse effects such as bad taste and nausea may limit their usefulness (18216). There is conflicting evidence for the use of oral zinc products to PREVENT colds. Some clinical research suggests that taking zinc prophylactically does not prevent the common cold in adults (10780,10784) or children (341). However, other clinical research suggests that administering zinc gluconate lozenges can reduce the incidence of colds in children and adolescents (10803,86972). In a meta-analysis of 28 randomized controlled trials with a total of 5446 participants, oral zinc prevented 5 viral upper respiratory tract infections per 100 person months of zinc use when compared with placebo, with a number needed to treat (NNT) of 20 (106902). Intranasal zinc is not recommended for the prevention or treatment of the common cold due to the risk for anosmia. See the Adverse Effects section for more information. Some research shows that zinc nasal spray (as a sulfate, gluconate emulsion, or gluconium gel) reduces the severity and duration of cold symptoms; however, other research has found no effect (6471,8628,8629,10247,87035). Zinc nasal spray does not seem to prevent experimentally-induced colds (8628).
• Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). While oral zinc does not seem to speed recovery from COVID-19 in non-hospitalized patients, an analysis of a small number of studies suggests that oral or intravenous zinc might reduce the risk of death in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Details: A small observational study in patients with COVID-19 has found that lower serum zinc levels are associated with worse clinical outcomes, such as admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) and death, when compared with higher zinc levels (105681). Another small observational study has found that 96% of patients with confirmed COVID-19 were zinc-deficient based on plasma levels of zinc, and that these patients had lower plasma zinc levels than a group of individuals without COVID-19. However, plasma zinc concentrations were only weakly correlated with length of hospital stay and there was no correlation with morbidity or mortality (106236). One clinical study in adult outpatients with COVID-19 shows that taking zinc gluconate 50 mg daily at bedtime, alone or with vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 8000 mg daily, for 10 days does not reduce symptom severity when compared with standard care (104450). This study was terminated prior to complete enrollment due to a lack of effect with zinc and/or vitamin C supplementation. Limitations of this study include a lack of placebo control and blinding. Zinc supplementation also does not appear to enhance the clinical efficacy of hydroxychloroquine in patients with confirmed COVID-19 infection. Taking zinc sulfate 220 mg twice daily during a 6-day course of hydroxychloroquine does not improve the clinical recovery rate, reduce the mortality rate, or reduce the need for mechanical ventilation when compared with hydroxychloroquine alone (104818). Other research has evaluated zinc in hospitalized patients. Multiple meta-analyses of small and low-quality clinical studies, including randomized controlled trials and retrospective studies, involving hospitalized patients with COVID-19 shows that supplementation with oral or intravenous zinc is associated with a 29% to 43% reduction in the odds of in-hospital mortality when compared with control (109451,110631). However, in one meta-analysis, the odds of 30-day mortality were not different between groups (110631). These meta-analyses did not elevate the most effective form, dose, frequency, or duration of zinc supplementation (109451,110631). Additionally, a retrospective study in adults admitted to the ICU with COVID-19 has found that those who received oral zinc sulfate, 220 mg daily for a median of 11 days, had a lower 30-day mortality rate when compared with those who did not receive zinc. However, there was no difference in hospital length of stay or in-hospital mortality (106903).
• Depression. Oral zinc seems to be beneficial when used in combination with antidepressant treatments. Details: Population research has found that higher zinc levels and higher dietary intake of zinc are associated with a 28% lower incidence of depression (90227,97139,104057). Oral zinc seems to be beneficial as an adjunct therapy in depression. A meta-analysis of small, low-quality studies in patients with major depression shows that taking zinc in addition to antidepressant therapy is associated with modestly improved depression symptoms when compared with antidepressant therapy alone (104044). Clinical studies used zinc doses of 7-25 mg daily for up to 12 weeks (86985,90221,104044). One small clinical study also shows that adding zinc to imipramine therapy might improve depression that was previously resistant to antidepressant treatment (87158). One clinical guideline also provisionally recommends use of zinc 25 mg elemental orally daily to treat patients with depression based on low-quality evidence. This guideline recommends use of chelated or picolinate zinc products over other forms of zinc (110318).
• Diabetes. Oral zinc might modestly improve glycemic control in some patients. Details: A meta-analysis of 12 clinical studies in patients with diabetes shows that taking zinc supplements reduces fasting blood glucose by up to 20 mg/dL and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) by 0.35% when compared with control. However, when only high quality studies were included, the reduction in fasting blood glucose dropped to 12 mg/dL. Zinc seems to only have glycemic benefit in patients living in the Eastern hemisphere, and not the Western hemisphere. Also, glucose reduction seems to be higher with inorganic zinc formulations at doses of at least 30 mg daily taken for at least one month (104080). Zinc has also been evaluated for improving lipid parameters in patients with diabetes. A meta-analysis of nine studies in patients with diabetes shows that taking zinc reduces triglycerides by 17 mg/dL, but does not seem to affect low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels, when compared with placebo (104041). The findings from these meta-analyses are limited by the high heterogeneity and small size of the included studies. Zinc has also been studied for gestational diabetes. Some clinical research in patients with gestational diabetes shows that taking zinc gluconate for 6 weeks, starting at 24-28 weeks' gestation, reduces fasting plasma glucose levels by about 10% and improves insulin resistance by 14% when compared to baseline (96072). However, taking zinc gluconate does not reduce the need for caesarean section or insulin therapy, or improve infant outcomes, such as size or health at birth, in these patients (96073).
• Diaper rash. Topical and oral zinc seem to reduce the incidence and severity of diaper rash in infants. Details: Clinical research shows that administering oral zinc gluconate 10 mg daily for 4 months can reduce the incidence of diaper rash in infants when compared with placebo (87281). Other clinical research shows that applying 47% zinc oxide paste to affected areas for 5 days can improve the healing of diaper rash. However, the effect of zinc oxide paste is inferior to eosin 2% solution (86918).
• Gingivitis. Topical zinc seems to reduce the development of gingivitis. Details: While some clinical research shows that zinc, in combination with triclosan, does not prevent plaque and gingivitis (24093,87020), most clinical research shows that using zinc toothpaste or mouthwash, alone or in combination with triclosan, can prevent plaque accumulation, gingivitis, or the formation of calculus (6523,6524,6525,6526,6527,6528,6529,87418,87507). However, most studies used zinc citrate in combination with triclosan, which is not available in the US (6523). For treating existing plaque, calculus, and gingivitis, some clinical research suggests that using zinc citrate 0.5% toothpaste three times daily for 3 months reduces calculus scores by 14% when compared with placebo (87205). However, other evidence suggests that stannous fluoride 0.454% toothpaste is more effective than zinc citrate 0.75% toothpaste for reducing plaque levels (87136).
• Halitosis. Oral zinc seems to reduce halitosis when taken as a gum, mouth rinse, or candy. Details: Clinical research shows that chewing zinc-containing gum reduces volatile sulfur compounds and related odor levels when compared with placebo gum in patients with moderate to severe halitosis (87538). Clinical research also shows that using one of two mouth rinses (Halita, which contains 0.05% chlorhexidine and 0.14% zinc lactate, or Meridol, which contains 0.025% fluoride plus 0.2% zinc lactate) improves breath odor and volatile sulfur compounds by approximately two-fold when compared with mouth rinse containing only 0.05% fluoride or chlorhexidine 0.12% (90206). Additional clinical research shows that sucking a candy containing abrasive substances and zinc gluconate 0.5% or candy containing abrasive substances plus zinc 0.25% and propolis 1% improves breath malodor two- to three-fold when compared with sucking placebo candy (90196).
• Herpes labialis (cold sores). Topical zinc seems to reduce the severity and duration of cold sores. Details: Applying zinc topically seems to help treat herpes simplex infection (6538,6539,8623,11051). Zinc sulfate seems to reduce the severity and duration of symptoms in both orolabial and genital herpes (6538,6539). Zinc oxide (0.3%) in combination with glycine cream applied topically every 2 hours to facial and circumoral herpes seems to reduce symptoms such as blistering, soreness, itching, and tingling. It can also reduce the duration of lesions from 6.5 days to 5 days when treatment is begun within 24 hours of onset of symptoms (8623). A specific combination product containing zinc oxide and L-lysine plus 14 other ingredients (Super Lysine Plus +) also seems to help decrease symptoms and duration of herpes lesions when applied topically every 2 hours (11051). However, zinc may not be effective for recurrent herpes simplex infections. In one clinical study, applying zinc sulfate 0.0025% or 0.05% solution to affected areas did not reduce the frequency, severity, or duration of herpes episodes when compared with a placebo solution in patients experiencing more than five episodes per year (87330).
• Hypogeusia. Oral zinc might improve taste disturbance and taste acuity in people with hypogeusia of various etiologies. Details: A meta-analysis of low-quality studies in patients with taste disorders that are idiopathic or due to zinc deficiency shows that taking oral zinc modestly improves taste acuity when compared with placebo (104055). Studies tested zinc gluconate, zinc sulfate, zinc acetate, and zinc-carnosine as Polaprezinc (Promac, Zeria Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.), containing 17-68 mg elemental zinc, daily for up to 12 weeks (104055). Zinc also might improve hypogeusia conditions unrelated to zinc deficiency, such as gustin/carbonic anhydrase VI deficiency, captopril-induced taste disturbances, hypogeusia due to chronic renal failure, and post-traumatic olfactory disorder (6543,6544,104055). It also seems be beneficial in radiation-induced dysgeusia. A meta-analysis of three small clinical trials shows that oral zinc reduces the risk of radiation-induced dysgeusia by 28%, but does not improve taste acuity when compared with placebo (104043). However, patients with hypogeusia from other causes may not benefit. Zinc supplementation does not seem to improve taste perception when compared with placebo in patients with acetazolamide-induced taste dysfunction or chemotherapy-induced taste dysfunction (87388,90214).
• Leishmania lesions. Oral zinc and intralesional injections of zinc might improve healing of these lesions. Details: Clinical research shows that taking zinc sulfate 2.5-10 mg/kg orally in three divided doses daily, improves the cure rate of cutaneous leishmania lesions after 45 days when compared with no treatment (86935). Other clinical research shows that intralesional injections of zinc sulfate 2% solution for 6 weeks improves cure rates of cutaneous leishmania lesions when compared with no treatment (6587). However, intralesional injections with zinc sulfate solution does not appear to be more effective than intralesional injections of meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime), hypertonic saline, or sodium stibogluconate (6587,86996,87008).
• Leprosy. Oral zinc seems to be beneficial when used in combination with anti-leprosy drugs. Details: Zinc levels appear to be reduced in people with leprosy. Early clinical research suggests that the addition of zinc improves tolerance of the anti-leprosy drug regimen and might allow for lowering or eliminating steroid doses in erythema nodosum leprosum, a severe form of leprosy (6534,6535,6536,6537).
• Low birth weight. Oral zinc supplementation seems to improve growth in low birth weight infants. Whether oral zinc can improve other outcomes, including mortality, is unclear. Taking oral zinc during pregnancy does not seem to reduce the risk of having a low birth weight infant. Details: While there is some mixed evidence regarding the effects of zinc supplementation on weight gain and length in infants born with low birth weight (87172,87452,90229), a meta-analysis of 14 clinical trials in preterm or low birth weight infants receiving breastmilk shows that zinc supplementation, typically 5-7 mg daily started at birth and continued for up to 12 months with or without other micronutrients, increases weight by around 380 grams, length by around 3 cm, and head circumference by around 0.6 cm when compared with control (109455). There is also mixed evidence regarding the effect of zinc supplementation on other outcomes in low birth weight infants. A large clinical trial in full-term, underweight infants aged 1-6 months in developing countries shows that adding zinc to nutritional supplementation reduces the risk of mortality by about 68% when compared with nutritional supplementation not containing zinc (8920). A small clinical trial in very low birth weight preterm infants born in an industrialized country shows that adding zinc to multivitamin supplementation appears to reduce the occurrence of necrotizing enterocolitis and mortality. However, adding zinc does not appear to prevent late-onset sepsis, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, or retinopathy of prematurity (90229). A meta-analysis of these trials and two other studies in low birth weight infants shows that supplementation with zinc reduces the risk of all-cause mortality by 52% when compared with either placebo, other vitamin and/or mineral supplementation, or no supplementation (106239). Another small clinical study in low birth weight and preterm infants born in a developing country shows that zinc supplementation seems to improve alertness and attention when compared with placebo (97140). However, a meta-analysis of 14 clinical trials in preterm or low birth weight infants receiving breastmilk shows that zinc supplementation, typically 5-7 mg daily started at birth and continued for up to 12 months with or without other micronutrients, does not improve mental or psychomotor development or reduce the risk of mortality, hospitalization, acute respiratory infection, or sepsis when compared with control (109455). Some of these discrepant findings may be due to differences in patient populations (hospitalized, non-hospitalized), milk sources (breastfed, formula-fed, or both), and duration of follow-up. The effect of zinc intake or supplementation during pregnancy has also been evaluated. Population research has found that low dietary intake of zinc during pregnancy is associated with low birth weight in infants; similarly, zinc supplementation is associated with increased infant weight at birth (87471,105678). However, a meta-analysis and a large clinical study show that zinc supplementation during pregnancy does not reduce the risk of having a low birth weight infant (97142,105679). Reasons for the discrepancies may be due to differing zinc status prior to supplementation. Also, numerous factors contribute to the risk of low birth weight, which may confound research on the use of zinc supplementation alone.
• Peptic ulcers. Oral zinc seems to treat and prevent peptic ulcers. Details: Taking zinc orally seems to help treat and prevent peptic ulcers (6588,6589,6591). Some clinical research shows that zinc acexamate improves peptic ulcers when compared with placebo (6589,87285), and seems to be as effective as H2-receptor antagonist drugs (6589,87533). It is not known if other zinc salts are effective.
• Pneumonia. Oral zinc might reduce the risk for pneumonia in children, but it doesn't seem to improve symptoms in children that already have pneumonia. Details: A meta-analysis of four clinical studies shows that giving zinc supplements to children, ages 3 months to 5 years living in developing countries, some of whom were undernourished, reduces the risk of pneumonia incidence by 21% when compared with placebo (104047). Another meta-analysis of clinical research in children under the age of five years shows that supplementation with zinc reduces the risk of pneumonia mortality by 21% when compared with either placebo, other vitamin and/or mineral supplementation, or no supplementation (106239). The research on TREATING existing pneumonia in children is inconsistent. Most meta-analyses and clinical studies in children ages 2 months to 5 years with severe pneumonia show that taking elemental zinc in addition to antibiotic therapy does not improve symptom resolution or the time to recovery when compared with antibiotic therapy alone. Zinc also does not seem to reduce mortality in these patients (87248,90197,96080,98131,104042). However, two clinical studies in children in the same age group with pneumonia suggest that adding zinc to standard antibiotic therapy improves symptom resolution and decreases hospital stay when compared with placebo (11052,87242). Reasons for these discrepancies are not clear, but may be related to zinc status prior to treatment.
• Prematurity. Analyses of clinical studies suggest that oral zinc improves growth in premature infants. Whether zinc improves development or reduces the risk of mortality in these patients is unclear. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical trials in hospitalized infants born prematurely suggests that receiving enteral zinc supplementation at a dose of up to 10 mg daily reduces mortality and might improve short-term weight gain when compared with placebo (105687). Another meta-analysis of small clinical studies in preterm infants shows that adding zinc to formula or to a multivitamin seems to modestly increase infant weight and height and improve motor development when compared with control (105676). A larger meta-analysis of 14 clinical trials in preterm or low birth weight infants receiving breastmilk shows that zinc supplementation, typically 5-7 mg daily started at birth and continued for up to 12 months with or without other micronutrients, increases weight by around 380 grams, length by around 3 cm, and head circumference by around 0.6 cm when compared with control. However, zinc supplementation did not improve mental or psychomotor development or reduce the risk of mortality, hospitalization, acute respiratory infection, or sepsis when compared with control (109455). These analyses are limited by imprecision as well as a high risk of bias in some of the included studies. Some of the discrepant findings may be due to differences in patient populations (hospitalized, non-hospitalized), milk sources (breastfed, formula-fed, or both), and duration of follow-up.
• Pressure ulcers. Topical zinc paste seems to work as a skin barrier and improve pressure ulcer healing. Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study shows that applying zinc oxide paste to pressure ulcers daily for 8 weeks reduces necrotic tissue and decreases the surface area of skin pressure ulcers similarly to using a topical streptokinase-streptodornase product (Varidase) (87331). Other small clinical studies show that applying zinc oxide paste to pressure ulcers daily for 8-12 weeks improves healing similarly to a hydrocolloid dressing (Duoderm) (87181) or a specific barrier film product (Cavilon No Sting Barrier Film) (87017). Oral zinc has been evaluated in combination with other ingredients for the treatment of grade II-IV pressure ulcers. Two small clinical studies in hospitalized patients shows that administering an oral nutritional supplement enriched with zinc, L-arginine, and vitamin C improves ulcer healing when compared with a standard diet (31953,87173). Also, clinical research in patients living in long-term care facilities shows that taking an oral nutritional supplement enriched in protein, zinc, L-arginine, and vitamin C daily for 9 weeks reduces ulcer area and decreases oozing when compared to baseline (32045). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Sickle cell disease. Oral zinc seems to improve symptoms of sickle cell disease in patients with zinc deficiency. Details: Taking zinc orally seems to help reduce symptoms of sickle cell disease in people with zinc deficiency (6594,6595,6596,8626,87343). Taking zinc supplements also seems to decrease the occurrence rate of sickle-cell crises and infections (6594,6596,90228). Additionally, zinc might reduce the number of hospitalizations for sickle cell crises, although the severity of the crises that do develop is not necessarily decreased by taking zinc supplements (6594,6596). In prepubertal children and adolescents with homozygous sickle cell disease, taking zinc seems to improve growth, height, and weight gain (8626,87403).
• Warts. Oral and topical zinc seem to improve the cure rate of cutaneous warts. Details: A small clinical study suggests that applying zinc sulfate 10% solution three times daily for 4 weeks improves plane warts, but not common warts, when compared with distilled water (87094). Another small clinical study suggests that applying topical zinc oxide 20% ointment twice daily for up to 3 months seems to have a similar cure rate as ointment containing salicylic acid 15% with lactic acid 15% (87082). Taking zinc orally may also be effective in treating warts (87227). A meta-analysis of low quality clinical studies shows that taking zinc sulfate orally improves the odds of curing cutaneous warts nearly 17-fold when compared with respective controls (87227). Preliminary clinical research in adults treated with cryotherapy for anogenital warts shows that taking zinc gluconate 30 mg orally three times daily for 2 months does not reduce the number of warts when compared with placebo (111445).

POSSIBLY INEFFECTIVE

• Alopecia areata. Oral zinc does not seem to improve symptoms of this condition. Details: Although there is preliminary evidence that suggests zinc in combination with biotin might be helpful for alopecia areata (6932), most studies indicate that zinc is not effective for alopecia areata, alopecia totalis, or alopecia universalis (6931,6932).
• Cystic fibrosis. Oral zinc does not improve cystic fibrosis symptoms or progression. Details: Clinical research shows that taking supplements providing 30-90 mg of elemental zinc for 6 weeks to one year does not improve lung function when compared with placebo in children and adolescents with cystic fibrosis (87066,87113,96079). One clinical study also shows that taking elemental zinc for one year does not reduce the number of days requiring oral or intravenous antibiotics for pulmonary infections (96079). However, one study shows that taking zinc can reduce the number of days of oral antibiotic use when compared with placebo (87113).
• HIV/AIDS. Oral zinc does not seem to improve outcomes in patients with HIV. Details: Clinical research in adult HIV patients with normal or low zinc levels shows that taking elemental zinc 12-15 mg daily orally for 18 months along with antiretroviral therapy does not improve viral load, CD4/8 counts, or mortality when compared with placebo (87036,87216,105686). In children with HIV-1, clinical research shows that administering zinc sulfate, providing 10 mg elemental zinc, daily for 6 months does not improve mortality, viral load, or CD4 counts when compared with placebo (82377).
• HIV/AIDS-related pregnancy complications. Oral zinc does not prevent pregnancy complications related to HIV infection. Details: Adding zinc 25 mg orally during pregnancy does not seem to reduce parent-to-child vertical transmission of HIV, infant mortality, birth weight, or gestational period in HIV-infected females with low zinc levels (11054,87034). Also, one clinical study in HIV-1-infected pregnant patients suggests that supplemental zinc can increase the risk of wasting, as assessed by weight and mid-upper arm circumference, by 170% when compared with placebo (87034).
• HIV/AIDS-related wasting. Oral zinc does not seem to improve HIV-related wasting syndrome. Details: A clinical study in patients with HIV-related wasting syndrome shows that taking zinc orally in combination with vitamins and albendazole does not seem to improve diarrhea or mortality when compared with taking albendazole alone (6564).
• Infant development. Oral zinc does not seem to improve infant mental and psychomotor development. Details: Clinical research, including a meta-analysis of eight studies, shows that giving zinc to infants or children at high risk for zinc deficiency does not improve mental and psychomotor development when compared with placebo (87013,90209). In another meta-analysis of studies in children whose baseline zinc status was not specified, there was no beneficial effect of zinc supplementation on mental or psychomotor development at 6 or 12 months of age (104817).
• Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Oral zinc does not improve symptoms of IBD. Details: Some clinical research shows that taking zinc orally does not seem to help treat IBD (6913,6915,6916).
• Influenza. Oral zinc does not seem to reduce the risk for influenza. Details: Supplemental zinc seems to improve cell-mediated immune response in elderly people (824), but it does not seem to have a significant effect on antibody response and incidence of influenza infection after the vaccine (6553,6563). Additionally, zinc supplementation in patients on hemodialysis, who have a high risk of zinc deficiency, does not seem to improve response to influenza vaccine (10809). Taking zinc supplements orally is unlikely to improve immune function in people without risk factors for zinc deficiency (10789). However, there is preliminary evidence that suggests zinc along with selenium might reduce the incidence of infections in institutionalized older patients (8921).
• Otitis media. Oral zinc does not prevent otitis media in children. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that taking elemental zinc 3-70 mg daily for up to 24 months does not prevent the occurrence of ear infections in children from low- or middle-income countries (87258).
• Pre-eclampsia. Oral zinc taken prenatally does not seem to be beneficial for pre-eclampsia prevention. Details: A meta-analysis and a large clinical study show that zinc supplementation during pregnancy does not reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia when compared with placebo (97142,105679).
• Prostate cancer. Oral zinc does not reduce the risk for prostate cancer or prostate cancer-related mortality. Details: Some epidemiological research has found an inverse relationship between dietary zinc intake and prostate cancer (96075). Also some clinical research shows that taking zinc 20 mg in combination with vitamin C 120 mg, vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) 30 mg, beta-carotene 6 mg, and selenium 100 mcg daily for an average of 8 years might reduce the risk of prostate cancer in men with normal PSA levels; however, it does not seem to be beneficial for reducing the risk of prostate cancer in patients with PSA levels above 3 mcg/L (14135). However, some evidence raises concern that zinc might actually INCREASE the risk of prostate cancer. A large-scale population study found that taking more than 100 mg of supplemental zinc daily or taking supplemental zinc for 10 or more years doubles the risk of developing prostate cancer (10306). Another large-scale population study shows that men who take a multivitamin more than seven times per week and who also take a separate zinc supplement have a significantly increased risk of prostate cancer-related mortality (15607). Despite these studies suggesting the potential for adverse effects of zinc, a meta-analysis of mainly population research has found that there is no association between zinc intake and the risk of prostate cancer (96075).
• Psoriasis. Oral zinc does not reduce the severity of psoriasis symptoms. Details: Zinc epidermal levels are reportedly lower in people with psoriasis (6509). However, taking zinc orally does not seem to help treat psoriasis (6513,6514,6912,87363). Zinc supplementation has no effect on the psoriasis area and severity index (6513,6514).
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Oral zinc does not treat symptoms of RA. Details: Multiple clinical studies in patients with RA show that taking zinc orally does not improve function or symptoms when compared with baseline or control (6517,6518,6519,87406).
• Sexual dysfunction. Oral zinc does not improve sexual function in males with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Details: Clinical research shows that zinc supplementation does not improve sexual activity or libido when compared with placebo in males with sexual dysfunction secondary to CKD (6708,6568,87220,87386,87416). In fact, one clinical study shows that taking zinc can decrease the frequency of intercourse by 76% when compared with placebo in patients with CKD-related sexual dysfunction (87220).
• Tinnitus. Oral zinc does not improve severity of tinnitus or reduce tinnitus-related disability. Details: A meta-analysis of three small clinical trials in adults with tinnitus shows that taking elemental zinc 50 mg daily for up to 16 weeks does not improve tinnitus severity, or disability from tinnitus when compared with placebo (104051).

LIKELY INEFFECTIVE

• Malaria. Oral zinc does not prevent or treat malaria in undernourished children or pregnant adults in developing countries. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in children or pregnant adults shows that taking zinc orally, alone or in combination with other supplements, for does not reduce the risk of malaria parasitemia (111444). A large multi-country study in zinc-deficient preschool children with acute malaria shows that taking zinc supplements does not affect fever, parasitemia, or hemoglobin when compared with placebo (10246). An even larger clinical study of over 40,000 children with malaria aged 1-36 months shows that taking zinc 5-10 mg daily orally for approximately 17 months does not reduce mortality when compared with placebo (87078). Zinc supplements also do not appear to protect against infection by Plasmodium falciparum (8638,87235,86937). However, one small study in children with low and high levels of parasitemia shows that taking zinc 10 mg daily for 46 weeks may lower the incidence of fever episodes by 38% and 69%, respectively, when compared with placebo (86937).

INSUFFICIENT RELIABLE EVIDENCE to RATE

• Age-related cognitive decline. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with age-related cognitive decline. Details: An epidemiological study based on elderly adults enrolled in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) has found that taking zinc may improve cognition in a non-linear manner. Daily doses below 9 mg and 8 mg in males and females, respectively, showed a positive association with cognitive function, but doses above that level showed no association. Additionally, high intake of both zinc and selenium was associated with improved cognition in females, but not in males (108446). Dietary intake was collected from two patient-reported 24-hour recalls and cognition was only measured once, limiting the validity of these findings.
• Alcohol-related liver disease. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with alcoholic-related liver cirrhosis. Details: A small clinical study in patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis shows that taking zinc sulfate 600 mg daily for 6 weeks improves liver function, based on increased alkaline phosphatase activity and reduced serum bilirubin, when compared to baseline (87325).
• Anorexia nervosa. Oral zinc seems to improve weight gain in people with anorexia nervosa. Details: Anorexia nervosa might be linked with zinc deficiency. Small clinical trials in adolescents and adults with anorexia nervosa show that oral zinc supplements might help increase weight gain and improve depressive symptoms when compared with placebo (6905,6906).
• Arsenic poisoning. Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study shows that taking zinc 4 mg in combination with spirulina extract 500 mg daily for 16 weeks can decrease skin manifestations and reduce arsenic levels in the urine and in hair of patients with chronic arsenic poisoning (18301).
• Asthenopia (eye strain). Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A very small clinical study in adults without dry eye disease shows that taking a specific combination product containing zinc 10 mg, L-carnitine 50 mg, elderberry fruit extract 300 mg, currant 100 mg, and Eleutherococcus root 50 mg (Meramirt CM) orally once daily for 1 month improves measures of eye strain and contrast sensitivity when compared to baseline. Improvements in these measures were lacking in the control group (111295). Statistical comparison between the two groups was not reported. It is unclear if these effects are due to zinc, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Athletic performance. Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A very small clinical study in sleep-deprived recreational athletes shows that taking a combination of zinc 90 mg, magnesium 1350 mg, and vitamin B6 31.5 mg orally for 3 nights at bedtime does not improve grip strength, squat, or bench press performance when compared with placebo (113655).
• Atopic dermatitis (eczema). It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for alleviating eczema in children. Details: A small clinical study in children with eczema shows that taking zinc sulfate 185.4 mg orally daily for 8 weeks does not appear to improve the surface area affected and degree of erythema, symptom scores of itch and sleep disturbance, or topical steroid use when compared with placebo. Also, plasma zinc levels appear to be normal in children with eczema (6911).
• Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Oral zinc might improve certain symptoms in children with ADHD. Details: Observational research has found that lower serum zinc levels are both more prevalent in children with ADHD and are linked to worsened response to stimulant therapy (9965,9966,9967). Based on this evidence, there is some interest in using zinc to improve symptoms in children with ADHD. A meta-analysis of six small clinical trials shows that although taking zinc modestly improves overall symptoms of ADHD when compared with placebo, there is no effect on hyperactivity or inattention when these outcomes are examined separately. The sub-analyses conducted for these two separate outcomes included only 3 studies. Most, but not all, of the included studies were conducted in children also receiving methylphenidate treatment (106240). Elemental zinc, usually as sulfate, was typically used in doses of 10-40 mg daily for 6-12 weeks (11350,12060,106240). There is some evidence that zinc could be most helpful in children with a high body mass index (BMI), low zinc levels, and low free fatty acid levels (11350). It is unclear if zinc is beneficial in children who are not already taking stimulant medications. One clinical guideline also provisionally recommends against use of oral zinc to treat patient with ADHD based on low-quality evidence (110318).
• Autism spectrum disorder. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in children with autism spectrum disorder. Details: One small clinical study conducted in children with autism spectrum disorder shows that taking zinc 15-30 mg orally, alone or as add-on therapy to amphetamine, does not improve attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms when compared with placebo (98711). However, the optimal mg/kg dose of amphetamine was shown to be 37% lower for those children also taking zinc 15 mg twice daily when compared with those taking placebo (98711).
• Autoimmune thyroiditis. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in children with autoimmune thyroiditis. Details: A small clinical study in children aged 3-18 years with autoimmune thyroiditis shows that taking zinc acetate 25 mg daily in addition to standard therapy for 12 weeks does not change thyroid auto-antibody levels, thyroid function tests, or oxidative stress markers when compared with standard therapy alone. However, subjects taking zinc did not require escalation in levothyroxine doses when compared with the control group control group, which did require levothyroxine dose escalation (113661).
• Behcet disease. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with Behcet disease. Details: A small clinical trial in patients with Behcet disease shows that taking zinc gluconate 30 mg daily for 12 weeks does not improve disease activity scores, quality of life, or measures of inflammation when compared with placebo (109453).
• Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Although there is interest in using oral zinc for BPH, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of zinc for this condition.
• Beta-thalassemia. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with beta-thalassemia major. Details: A small clinical study in children recently diagnosed with beta-thalassemia major shows that initiating zinc sulfate in addition to standard blood transfusions increases linear growth rate when compared with transfusions alone (87329). Another small clinical study in adult and pediatric patients with thalassemia major and low bone mass shows that taking zinc 25 mg daily (as zinc sulfate) for 18 months improves whole-body bone mineral content, as well as hip and spine bone mineral density, by small amounts when compared with placebo (90208).
• Brain tumor. It is unclear if dietary zinc is beneficial for reducing the risk for brain cancer. Details: Population research has found that zinc intake is not associated with a reduced risk of developing brain cancer (87098).
• Breast cancer. It is unclear if increased dietary zinc intake is beneficial for reducing the risk for breast cancer. Details: Population research has found that neither zinc intake nor blood levels of zinc are associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer (106229).
• Bronchiolitis. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for viral bronchiolitis in infants and children. Details: A small clinical study in children 2 years or younger with acute viral bronchiolitis shows that taking elemental zinc 10-20 mg as zinc sulfate for 5 days improves clinical recovery and reduces the duration of hospital stay by almost one day when compared with placebo. After 72 hours, 98% of infants and children taking zinc were considered fully recovered, compared to only 52% of infants taking placebo (96076).
• Burning mouth syndrome. Topical zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with burning mouth syndrome shows that taking zinc 15 mg and vitamin C 35 mg once daily, along with a vitamin B complex twice daily, for 30 days modestly decreases pain and burning when compared to baseline (105195). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group. Furthermore, it is unclear if the benefit is due to zinc, other vitamins, or the combination.
• Burns. Intravenous zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. The effects of oral zinc for burn healing are unclear. Details: Administering zinc intravenously in combination with other minerals seems to improve the outcomes of burn patients. Supplementation with zinc, copper, and selenium appears to improve wound healing, reduce pulmonary infections, and shorten intensive care unit stay in patients with serious burns (6520,87085). The effect of supplementation with zinc alone is unclear.
• Canker sores. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with canker sores. Details: Evidence for the use of zinc in canker sores is conflicting. A small clinical crossover study in patients with recurrent canker sores shows that taking zinc sulfate 660 mg daily for 3 months does not improve the size or frequency of canker sore ulcers when compared with control (6592). However, another clinical study in patients with recurrent sores and low or normal zinc levels shows that taking zinc sulfate 220 mg daily for 1 month reduces recurrence of sores when compared with placebo (86964). Reasons for conflicting results are unclear. Zinc might be beneficial when used in a muco-adhesive formulation. A small clinical study in patients with canker sores shows that taking a muco-adhesive zinc sulfate 5 mg tablet three times daily for 7 days reduces pain and speeds up healing when compared with placebo (104048).
• Cataracts. Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Taking zinc orally in combination with antioxidant vitamins does not seem to help treat or prevent cataracts. Taking elemental zinc 80 mg plus vitamin C 500 mg, vitamin E 400 IU, and beta-carotene 15 mg daily does not seem to have any effect on the development or progression of age-related lens opacities (cataracts) or the need for cataract surgery in well-nourished people 55-80 years of age. However, it is unknown whether earlier intervention and/or a longer period of treatment with supplements would have any effect on cataracts (7304).
• Chemotherapy-induced acral erythema. It is unclear if oral zinc reduces the severity of acral erythema induced in patients treated with the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (VEGFR-TKIs) treatment regorafenib. Details: A small study in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer undergoing treatment with regorafenib shows that taking zinc gluconate 78 mg twice daily reduces the proportion of patients with more severe acral erythema when compared with control. Though there is no association in the zinc treatment group, lower serum zinc levels seem to correlate with more severe acral erythema in the control group, suggesting a possible role of zinc deficiency in the pathogenesis of acral erythema (112472). The validity of this study is limited by the lack of blinding.
• Chemotherapy-related fatigue. It is unclear if oral zinc improves symptoms in patients with fatigue due to chemotherapy. Details: A small clinical study in patients undergoing 4 or more cycles of chemotherapy for colorectal cancer shows that taking zinc 70 mg daily for 16 weeks does not improve fatigue or quality of life when compared with placebo (97141).
• Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Clinical research in females with CFS shows that taking zinc 10 mg as zinc sulfate plus melatonin 1 mg daily for 16 weeks modestly reduces self-reported symptoms of physical fatigue when compared with placebo. However, there was no effect on cognitive or psychological symptoms, sleep, or symptoms of anxiety or depression (106241). This study may not have been adequately powered to detect differences between groups.
• Cirrhosis. It is unclear if zinc is beneficial for reducing cirrhosis-related mortality. Details: A meta-analysis of four small clinical trials shows that zinc supplementation does not seem to reduce mortality in patients with cirrhosis when compared with control (104054). This finding is limited due to the heterogeneity and small size of the available studies.
• Cognitive function. It is unclear if zinc is beneficial for cognitive function. Details: A very small clinical study in adults with overweight and obesity shows that taking supplemental zinc 30 mg daily for 12 weeks improves some measures of cognitive function and executive processing but does not improve verbal fluency when compared with placebo (112471). Zinc has also been evaluated in combination with other ingredients. A small clinical trial in healthy adults shows that taking a specific product containing a combination of zinc 9 mg, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Bifidobacterium longum, and other ingredients (Puraflor, GSK Consumer Healthcare, Milano, Italy) orally daily for 4 weeks does not affect cognitive performance during acute stress when compared with placebo (110923).
• Colorectal adenoma. Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A large clinical study shows that taking a combination supplement containing zinc 30 mg, selenium 200 mcg (as l-selenomethionine), vitamin A 2 mg (as retinol), vitamin C 180 mg, and vitamin E 30 mg (as D-a-tocopherol acetate) by mouth daily for 5 years or until the recurrence of an adenoma reduces the risk of recurrent large-bowel adenomas by approximately 40% when compared with placebo (92903). It is not clear if the benefit is due to zinc, other supplements, or the combination.
• Colorectal cancer. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for reducing colorectal cancer risk. Details: Population research has found that increased intake of zinc is associated with a 17% to 20% reduced risk of colorectal cancer (90213,90220).
• Congenital heart disease. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for reducing the risk of congenital heart defects. Details: An observational study in pregnant adults has found that consuming the recommended nutritional intake of zinc may be associated with a lower risk of total congenital heart defects in infants, including atrial and ventricular septal defects, when compared with low zinc intake. This association appears to persist despite copper or selenium intake (108445).
• Critical illness (trauma). It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for critically ill patients. Details: A meta-analysis of two small randomized clinical trials in adults with head trauma shows that supplementing zinc, given as 120 mg elemental zinc orally daily or 12 mg elemental zinc intravenously daily for 15 days to 3 months, regardless of serum zinc levels, does not improve the risk of 30-day mortality when compared with control (111290). However, the study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference between groups.
• Dementia. Although there is interest in using oral zinc for dementia, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of zinc for this condition.
• Diabetic foot ulcers. Although there is interest in using oral zinc for diabetic foot ulcers, there is insufficient reliable information about the clinical effects of zinc for this condition.
• Diabetic neuropathy. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with diabetic neuropathy. Details: A small clinical study in patients with poorly-controlled diabetic neuropathy shows that taking zinc sulfate 660 mg daily for 6 weeks improves motor nerve conduction velocity and reduces fasting and postprandial blood sugar when compared to baseline (86933). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of statistical comparison to the control group.
• Down syndrome. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for improving immune function in people with this condition. Details: A very small clinical study in Down syndrome patients with zinc deficiency shows that taking zinc sulfate 1 mg/kg daily for 2 months seems to improve immune function and reduce recurrent infections when compared with baseline (87289). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a control group. Another small clinical study in children with Down syndrome shows that zinc 25-50 mg daily for 6 months does not improve immune function when compared with placebo (87278). Reasons for the discrepancies may be related to the dose of zinc or zinc status at baseline.
• Dysmenorrhea. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with dysmenorrhea. Details: Preliminary clinical research in females aged 13 to 21 years with primary dysmenorrhea shows that taking zinc sulfate 40 mg orally daily for the first 3 days of menstruation for three cycles reduces mean pain scores by 51% when compared with placebo (111446).
• Epilepsy. There is limited evidence on the oral use of zinc in children with intractable seizures. Details: A small clinical study in children with intractable epilepsy shows that taking elemental zinc 1 mg/kg daily as zinc sulfate heptahydrate for 6 months reduces seizures when compared with placebo. About 31% of children taking zinc experienced a 50% decrease in seizure frequency, compared to only 5% of children taking placebo (96078).
• Esophageal cancer. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for esophageal cancer prevention. Details: Population research in Chinese and Iranian patients has found that low intake of zinc is associated with an increased risk of esophageal squamous cell cancer (17205,87059). However, other population research in patients from America, Europe, or Asia has found that dietary zinc intake is not associated with esophageal cancer risk (90213).
• Fatigue. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for reducing fatigue in older individuals. Details: A clinical study in adults 50 years and older, some with below-normal levels of zinc at baseline, shows that taking zinc 30 mg daily for 70 days improves subjective fatigue when compared with no intervention (105675). The validity of this finding is limited due to a lack of placebo control and potential performance bias. Additionally, it is unclear whether baseline zinc status alters the benefits of zinc supplementation.
• Fecal incontinence. Topical zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in females with fecal incontinence shows that topically applying an ointment containing zinc sulfate 1% and aluminum sulfate 5% to the anal canal mucosa three times daily for 4 weeks improves symptoms approximately twice as much as a placebo ointment. Quality of life related to the incontinence also improved (90219).
• Gastric cancer. It is unclear if dietary zinc is beneficial for gastric cancer prevention. Details: Population research has found that increased dietary zinc intake is not associated with a decreased risk of gastric cancer (90213).
• Head and neck cancer. It is unclear if oral zinc improves survival in patients with head and neck cancers. Details: Preliminary clinical research in patients with head and neck cancers shows that zinc supplementation does not improve disease-free or metastasis-free survival rates after 3 years when compared with placebo (87103).
• Hepatic encephalopathy. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for reducing the severity of hepatic encephalopathy or preventing recurrence. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical studies, as well as some individual clinical studies, show that short-term zinc supplementation improves cognitive function and possibly quality of life in patients with hepatic encephalopathy. These findings are based on results from the number connection test and other tests (87377,90202,106227). One study in patients with minimal hepatic encephalopathy used zinc bisglycinate 75 mg three times daily, providing elemental zinc 45 mg daily for 12 weeks (106227). However, other preliminary clinical research shows that short-term zinc supplementation does not improve hepatic encephalopathy severity when compared with placebo when assessed using Conn's index, which includes evaluation of mental state, asterixis (flapping tremor), number connection test, electroencephalogram (EEG) record, and plasma ammonia (87144). Also, a meta-analysis of clinical research shows that zinc sulfate supplementation does not reduce encephalopathy recurrence (90202). Based on these results, zinc supplementation may marginally improve cognitive function in hepatic encephalopathy patients, but it does not appear to improve disease severity or reduce the risk of recurrence.
• HIV/AIDS-related diarrhea. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for preventing diarrhea in adult HIV patients. Details: Short-term zinc supplementation does not appear to TREAT diarrhea in adult HIV patients with persistent diarrhea. Clinical research shows that taking zinc 50 mg twice daily for 7 days does not reduce the duration of HIV-related diarrhea when compared with placebo (87055). However, zinc supplementation may help PREVENT HIV-related diarrhea when administered long-term. Clinical research shows that taking elemental zinc 12-15 mg daily for 18 months reduces the rate of diarrhea by about half when compared with placebo in adult HIV patients with zinc deficiency (87216). In HIV-infected children, clinical research shows that taking elemental zinc 10 mg daily for 6 months can reduce the occurrence of diarrhea by 49% when compared with placebo (82377). However, administering zinc in combination with vitamin A until 2 years of age does not reduce the occurrence of diarrhea when compared with vitamin A alone in HIV-infected children (82417).
• HIV/AIDS-related opportunistic infections. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in opportunistic infections in patients with HIV/AIDs. Details: A small clinical study in patients with AIDS shows that taking zinc supplements orally in combination with zidovudine (AZT, Retrovir) might reduce opportunistic infections of Pneumocystis carinii and Candida when compared with taking zidovudine without zinc (6566).
• Human papillomavirus (HPV). It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for preventing relapse in patients with vulvar warts or for treating HPV infections and cervical lesions in patients with abnormal cervical cytology. Details: One small clinical study in patients with vulvar warts shows that taking zinc sulfate 400 mg daily for 8 weeks in addition to topical treatments including podophyllin 20%, imiquimod 5%, or cryotherapy, does not affect the duration of response, but does reduce the relapse rate by approximately 66% after 6 months, when compared with topical treatments alone (90190). Additionally, a small, open-label study in zinc-sufficient females with HPV shows that taking zinc sulfate 220 mg twice daily for 3 months reduces the odds of persistent HPV infection by 87% and improves the resolution of pre-existing cervical lesions when compared with no treatment (109456).
• Hypertension. It is unclear if oral zinc reduces blood pressure in normotensive or hypertensive patients. Details: A meta-analysis of small clinical trials shows that taking zinc reduces systolic blood pressure by about 1.5 mmHg, but does not reduce diastolic blood pressure, when compared with placebo. Response did not differ with the dosage of zinc or duration of supplementation. Only one study evaluated patients with hypertension; other patient populations included those with type 2 diabetes, diabetic retinopathy, pre-diabetes, obesity, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and patients on dialysis (104052). More research in patients with hypertension is needed to determine if zinc is beneficial in this population.
• Impaired glucose tolerance (prediabetes). While some conflicting evidence exists, several small clinical studies suggest that oral zinc may improve glycemic control in patients with prediabetes. Details: A meta-analysis of three low-quality studies in patients with prediabetes suggests that taking zinc sulfate 20-30 mg, alone or in combination with lysine and vitamin C, for 6-12 months reduces fasting blood glucose and postprandial glucose when compared with control (105682). Furthermore, a small clinical study in patients with prediabetes shows that taking zinc gluconate 30 mg daily for 90 days improves glycemic parameters when compared with placebo. All study participants were also instructed to increase physical activity and start a calorie-restricted diet (105391). However, another small clinical study in patients with prediabetes shows that taking zinc gluconate 30 mg daily for 12 months does not improve glycemic parameters when compared with placebo (109454). The available research has been conducted in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Iran, and Australia; it is unclear if these findings are generalizable to other geographic locations.
• Intestinal parasite infection. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with intestinal parasitic infections. Details: Zinc supplementation may help TREAT infection from Schistosoma mansoniin, but not other parasites, in children in developing countries. Results from one clinical study show that taking oral zinc sulfate 30-50 mg for 12 months reduces the intensity of Schistosoma mansoniin infection in children, as measured by number of eggs per gram in feces, when compared with placebo (87495). However, supplementation with zinc does not appear to reduce the intensity of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichiuris trichura, nor Giardia lamblia infection in children (6586). Furthermore, preliminary clinical research suggests that supplementation with zinc may increase the duration of Entamoeba histolytica infection in children (87099). There are also inconsistent results regarding the effects of zinc in PREVENTING intestinal parasite infections. Some clinical research shows that taking zinc in combination with vitamin A reduces the incidence of Giardia lamblia infections when compared with placebo (87099). However, zinc supplementation does not appear to prevent intestinal infections by Ascaris lumbricoides, Schistosoma haematobium, nor Schistosoma mansoniin (87099,87495).
• Kidney failure. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for patients on hemodialysis who have resistance to erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs). Details: Zinc deficiency is thought to play a role in ESA-resistant anemia in patients with kidney failure. A small clinical trial in patients on hemodialysis with low zinc levels shows that taking zinc acetate hydrate, usually 25mg or 50 mg daily, for 12 months increases plasma levels of zinc and modestly reduces the required weekly dose of ESAs when compared with placebo. However, there was no effect on hemoglobin levels (109781).
• Leukemia. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for improving weight maintenance in children and adolescents with leukemia. Details: A small clinical study in children and adolescents with acute leukemia shows that taking zinc 2 mg/kg (as an amino acid salt) in two divided doses daily for 60 days doubles weight gain and reduces infection rate by approximately 60% when compared with placebo. However, zinc supplementation does not appear to improve nutritional status (90204).
• Liver cancer. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for preventing hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Details: In patients treated for hepatitis C, the presence of hepatic fibrosis increases the risk for development of HCC, and is also associated with low plasma zinc levels. In a retrospective analysis of patients with a sustained virological response to hepatitis C therapy, those taking oral zinc supplements for at least 6 months had approximately half the risk of developing HCC when compared with those not taking zinc. Maintaining a serum zinc level above 90 mcg/dL seems to reduce the risk for HCC (106904).
• Lung cancer. It is unclear if increased dietary zinc intake is beneficial for reducing the risk of lung cancer. Details: Population research suggests that the highest dietary intake of zinc is associated with a 32% reduced risk of lung cancer when compared with the lowest intake (106235). Additionally, another large epidemiological cancer screening trial with a mean follow-up of 12.2 years suggests that dietary intake of zinc is protective against lung cancer, with the highest quartile of dietary intake showing the greatest benefit. However, this protective effect was not found for supplemental intake of zinc (112096).
• Male infertility. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for infertility in males. Details: Some preliminary clinical research shows that taking zinc sulfate 66 mg daily increases sperm count, testosterone levels, and the incidence of pregnancy in idiopathic infertile men with low testosterone levels (9334,87430). Another clinical study shows that taking zinc sulfate 66 mg daily can improve sperm morphology by approximately 33% when compared to baseline in men with a grade III varicocele (90194). However, not all research agrees. One clinical study shows that taking elemental zinc 30 mg with folic acid 5 mg daily for 6 months does not improve sperm morphology or pregnancy rates when compared with placebo in infertile men (102085). It is possible the lower dose used in this study was insufficient to produce the beneficial effects observed in earlier research. Zinc supplementation has also been studied as part of combination therapy. A retrospective study in males with or without varicocele-related infertility has found that taking a specific combination product containing zinc 10 mg, L-carnitine fumarate 1725 mg, acetyl-L-carnitine 500 mg, vitamin C 90 mg, coenzyme Q10 20 mg, folic acid 0.2 mg, selenium 0.05 mg, and vitamin B12 0.015 mg (Proxeed Plus, Sigma-Tau) orally twice daily for 6 months improves sperm count, sperm concentration, and sperm motility when compared with baseline. Improvements in semen parameters were greatest in subjects with more severe varicoceles. The validity of this study is limited by the lack of a comparator group (111296). There is also interest in using zinc to improve results of in vitro fertilization (IVF). A small clinical study in couples undergoing IVF suggests that infertile male partners who take a specific combination product (Menevit) containing zinc and other antioxidants seem to have an increased rate of viable pregnancies when compared with placebo (87087). However, it's unclear if the benefit can be attributed to zinc, other antioxidants, or the combination.
• Melasma. It is unclear if topical zinc reduces melasma severity. Details: A small clinical study shows that applying a topical solution containing zinc sulfate 10% once daily for 2 months is less effective at reducing melasma severity when compared with hydroquinone 4% (90232).
• Menopausal symptoms. It is unclear if oral zinc improves sexual function after menopause. Details: A single clinical trial shows that taking zinc sulfate 110 mg daily for 6 weeks modestly improves testosterone levels and sexual function, including desire, arousal, satisfaction, and pain, after menopause when compared with placebo (106228).
• Migraine headache. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with migraine. Details: Two small clinical studies in patients with migraine show that taking zinc sulfate 200 mg or zinc gluconate 15 mg daily for 8-12 weeks modestly reduces migraine severity and frequency when compared with placebo (104040,105684). Both studies were conducted in Iran; it is unclear if these findings are generalizable to other geographic locations.
• Nasopharyngeal cancer. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with this type of cancer. Details: A small clinical study in patients with locally advanced nasopharyngeal cancer shows that zinc supplementation 75 mg daily for 2 months may improve disease-free survival rates after 5 years when compared with placebo (87163).
• Neonatal jaundice. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for neonatal jaundice. Details: Two small clinical studies in infants with idiopathic neonatal hyperbilirubinemia show that receiving oral zinc sulfate 5 mg twice daily for 5-7 days does not affect levels of total bilirubin, the required duration of phototherapy, or the duration of hospitalization, when compared with placebo (90212,104814). A larger clinical trial suggests that this lack of effect may be due to the need for a longer treatment duration. In preterm infants receiving phototherapy and zinc 1.2 mg/kg daily as zinc sulfate heptahydrate, via either orogastric or nasogastric tube for 10 days, serum bilirubin levels were modestly decreased only on days 8-10 when compared with phototherapy alone (106242).
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with NAFLD. Details: A small clinical study in patients with NAFLD shows that following a calorie-restricted diet and taking zinc 30 mg daily for 12 weeks reduces certain liver enzymes, but does not improve steatosis or reduce weight, when compared with taking placebo and following a calorie-restricted diet (104046).
• Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for non-Hodgkin lymphoma prevention. Details: Population research has found that higher dietary intake of zinc is associated with a 42% decreased odds of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma (87048).
• Obesity. Small studies suggest that oral zinc does not reduce weight or calorie intake in people with overweight or obesity. Details: A very small clinical study in adults with overweight or obesity shows that taking supplemental zinc 30 mg daily for 12 weeks does not reduce body weight, body mass index (BMI), calorie intake, or macronutrient intake when compared with placebo (112471). Additionally, clinical research in adults with overweight or obesity shows that taking zinc gluconate 25 mg and L-selenomethionine 200 mcg once daily for 8 weeks does not improve BMI, total body fat, or fat free mass when compared with placebo (111448).
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). It is unclear if oral zinc reduces symptoms in patients with OCD. Details: A small clinical study in patients with OCD shows that taking zinc sulfate 200 mg twice daily with fluoxetine 20 mg daily for 8 weeks modestly reduces the severity of OCD symptoms when compared with taking placebo with fluoxetine (90223).
• Oral mucositis. It is unclear if oral or topical zinc prevents oral mucositis due to chemotherapy. Some small clinical studies suggest that oral zinc might prevent mucositis due to radiotherapy. Details: Two small clinical studies in adults with leukemia and other cancers shows that taking zinc sulfate 220 mg three times daily for 14 days or until the end of chemotherapy treatment reduces oral mucositis and pain intensity when compared with placebo (90191,98132). However, smaller doses have not shown benefit. A small clinical study in children and adolescents with leukemia shows that taking zinc 2 mg/kg daily (up to 60 mg daily) in two divided doses does not affect chemotherapy-induced mucositis when compared with placebo (90204). An unblinded clinical study in children and adolescents aged 8-16 years with recently diagnosed leukemia shows that taking zinc gluconate 50 mg (7 mg elemental zinc) daily does not significantly reduce the incidence or duration of oral mucositis when compared with a control group not receiving zinc (104816). Zinc also doesn't seem to be beneficial with high-dose chemotherapy. A small clinical study in adolescents and adults receiving high-dose chemotherapy prior to undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) suggests that taking zinc sulfate 220 mg (50 mg elemental zinc) twice daily, beginning one day prior to the chemotherapy regimen and continuing for 3 weeks, does not affect the severity, duration, or onset of mucositis when compared with placebo (90215). Other preliminary clinical research in children aged 3-18 years receiving chemotherapy for leukemia or other cancer also shows that taking zinc 1 mg/kg orally daily for 14 days, beginning on the first day of chemotherapy, does not reduce the incidence or severity of mucositis when compared with placebo (111447). Topical zinc has also been investigated for radiation-induced or chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis. In two clinical studies, using 7.5 mL of a mouthwash containing zinc chloride 0.2% twice for 2 minutes every 8 hours for 3 weeks modestly reduces the incidence and severity of oral mucositis, and improves quality of life, when compared with a placebo mouthwash (106232,109690). In one study, the average patient weight was higher in the group using the mouthwash containing zinc (106232). Other preliminary clinical research in adults with head and neck cancer undergoing radiotherapy treatment, consisting of at least 30 Gy radiation exposure shows that using zinc sulfate 1% mouthwash, 5 mL three times daily for 6 weeks, beginning on the first day of radiation therapy, moderately improves oral mucositis severity and pain scores when compared with chlorhexidine 0.2% or placebo mouthwash (111291). Taking zinc orally might be beneficial in radiation-induced oral mucositis. A small clinical study in patients with head and neck tumors shows that taking zinc sulfate, providing 150 mg elemental zinc, daily starting at the first day of radiation therapy and ending at 6 weeks, reduces the severity of mucositis and prolongs the onset of mucositis when compared with placebo (86981). Another clinical study in patients with head and neck cancer shows that taking zinc sulfate 150 mg daily during and after chemoradiotherapy treatment, consisting of a total 69.5 Gy radiation exposure and cisplatin 40 mg/m2 weekly, is associated with less severe mucositis when compared with placebo (105677).
• Osteoporosis. It is unclear if oral zinc improves bone density in patients with osteoporosis. Details: Population research has found that reduced zinc intake and lower zinc serum levels seem to be associated with lower bone mineral density (BMD) (6920,14410). In elderly patients with at least marginal zinc deficiency who are taking standard therapy for osteoporosis, preliminary clinical research shows that taking zinc acetate dihydrate (Nobelzin, Nobelpharma) providing elemental zinc 25 mg twice daily for 12 months increases BMD when compared with baseline. Increases in serum zinc were associated with improvements in BMD. However, it is unclear if increases in BMD were significant when compared with placebo (106230). It is also unclear if zinc improves BMD in patients without zinc deficiency. A small clinical study in healthy postmenopausal adults suggests that taking zinc in combination with copper, manganese, and calcium might slow bone loss when compared with placebo (1994). It is not clear if this effect is due to zinc, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Overall mortality. It is unclear if oral zinc reduces overall mortality in young children. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in children under the age of five years shows that supplementation with zinc in daily doses of at least 10 mg reduces the risk of all-cause mortality by 16% when compared with either placebo, other vitamin and/or mineral supplementation, or no supplementation. The risk of mortality was reduced by 54% when children took zinc for up to one year, but overall mortality was not reduced in studies lasting at least one year (106239).
• Periodontitis. Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A small clinical study in patients with moderate or advanced periodontitis shows that taking a combination supplement containing zinc 3.75 mg, alpha-lipoic acid, coenzyme Q10, cranberry extract, grapeseed extract, selenium, vitamin C, and vitamin E twice daily for 8 weeks in addition to standard nonsurgical therapy does not reduce periodontal indices including bleeding on probing, gingival recession, plaque index, or inflammation when compared with placebo (111708).
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with PCOS. Details: A small clinical study in adults taking metformin for PCOS shows that also taking zinc sulfate 220 mg (50 mg elemental zinc) daily for 8 weeks improves hair loss and facial growth, but not acne, when compared with placebo (96071).
• Postoperative sore throat. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for postoperative sore throat. Details: Clinical research shows that dissolving a lozenge containing zinc 40 mg as zinc sulfate in the mouth in the 30 minutes before surgery involving endotracheal intubation reduces the incidence of postoperative sore throat by 58% when compared with placebo lozenges. It also seems to reduce the severity of postoperative sore throat that does occur (97138). Other clinical research in adults undergoing a procedure that required endotracheal intubation shows that using a preoperative 30-mL gargle containing zinc 40 mg does not affect sore throat scores when compared with magnesium sulphate 250 mg or budesonide 200 mcg gargles (114763).
• Postpartum depression. It is unclear if oral zinc prevents postpartum depression after a Cesarean section (C-section). Details: A small observational study in pregnant patients with anemia who underwent C-section has found that taking zinc sulfate 100 mg daily for 4 days after surgery is associated with a 75% reduction in the odds of developing postpartum depression when compared with no supplementation (109452).
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). It is unclear if oral zinc improves symptoms in patients with PMS. Details: A small clinical study in female college students shows that taking elemental zinc 30 mg daily for 3 months improves quality of life, but not quality of sleep, when compared with placebo (104049).
• Preterm labor. It is unclear if oral zinc reduces the risk of preterm labor. Details: Observational research has found that low dietary intake of zinc during pregnancy is associated with an increased likelihood of preterm deliveries (87471). Also, most meta-analyses of clinical research show that taking zinc supplements during pregnancy modestly reduces the risk of preterm birth (106231). However, one large meta-analysis of 22 clinical studies shows that zinc supplementation during pregnancy seems to have little or no benefit for reducing the risk of preterm birth when compared with control (105679). Zinc supplementation also does not seem to reduce the risk of stillbirth, neonatal death, spontaneous abortion, or premature rupture of membranes (97142,105679,106231).
• Prostatitis. It is unclear if oral zinc improves symptoms in men with chronic prostatitis. Details: A clinical study in men with chronic prostatitis shows that taking zinc sulfate 220 mg daily along with prazosin 2 mg daily for 12 weeks does not improve difficulty urinating or quality of life, but does seem to improve pain, when compared with prazosin alone (90210). The validity of this study was limited by a significant dropout rate.
• Pruritus. There is limited evidence on the oral use of zinc for reducing pruritis in hemodialysis patients. Details: A small clinical study in end-stage renal disease patients with hemodialysis-associated pruritus shows that taking zinc sulfate 220 mg twice daily for 2 months reduces pruritus severity when compared with placebo (90218).
• Psoriatic arthritis. It is unclear if oral zinc improves psoriatic arthritis symptoms. Details: Two small clinical trials in patients with psoriatic arthritis show that taking zinc orally, alone or in combination with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), does not seem to reduce pain or improve function when compared with control (6514,6515).
• Respiratory tract infections. It is unclear if oral zinc reduces respiratory tract infections in children. Details: An open-label study in children aged 6 months to 5 years with zinc deficiency shows that taking zinc sulfate 20 mg orally once daily for 2 weeks reduces the number of episodes and the mean duration of upper and lower respiratory tract infections over 6 months of follow-up when compared with the 6 months prior to zinc supplementation (104815). The validity of this finding is limited by the lack of a comparator group.
• Rosacea. It is unclear of oral zinc improves symptoms of rosacea or quality of life. Details: A small clinical trial shows that taking zinc sulfate 440 mg in two divided doses daily for 90 days does not improve quality of life or symptoms associated with rosacea when compared with placebo (90195).
• Seizures. It is unclear if oral zinc reduces recurrent febrile seizures in children. Details: Although some individual preliminary clinical research disagrees (96069), a meta-analysis of generally low-quality research in children under 5 years of age with a previous febrile seizure shows that taking zinc sulfate 1-2 mg/kg or 20 mg daily for 6-12 months does not reduce febrile seizure recurrence when compared with placebo (106237). Also, a small clinical study shows that taking zinc does not increase the time to first febrile seizure recurrence (96069).
• Sepsis. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in sepsis of the newborn. Details: A meta-analysis of clinical research in children under the age of five years shows that supplementation with zinc reduces the risk of sepsis mortality by 57% when compared with either placebo, other vitamin and/or mineral supplementation, or no supplementation (106239). Also, a small clinical study in newborns with sepsis shows that giving zinc sulfate monohydrate 3 mg/kg twice daily for 10 days along with antibiotics reduces the likelihood of neurological abnormalities, such as those related to posture, behavior, and reflexes, by 70% when compared with antibiotics alone. Mortality and length of hospital stay were not improved, but the study may have been inadequately powered to detect a difference in these parameters (96077). Another study in preterm infants with late-onset sepsis (developing at least 72 hours after birth), shows that giving 1.4 mg/kg elemental zinc daily orally for 10 days in addition to antibiotics reduces the number of infants with unresolved sepsis at 10 days, and reduces C-reactive protein and procalcitonin levels, when compared with giving antibiotics alone (104819). A meta-analysis of small clinical studies in infants less than 4 months old shows that administering zinc 1-3 mg/kg daily for 1-18 weeks may reduce the rate of infant mortality and treatment failure when compared with placebo or control, but does not seem to prevent sepsis or improve sepsis-related mortality (108444).
• Shigellosis. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in patients with acute shigellosis from food poisoning. Details: A small clinical study in malnourished children with acute shigellosis (food poisoning) shows that administering a multivitamin syrup containing elemental zinc 20 mg daily for 2 weeks, in addition to standard treatment, can improve recovery time and reduce the number of diarrhea episodes when compared with multivitamin syrup without elemental zinc (87088).
• Sleep deprivation. Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A very small clinical study in sleep-deprived recreational athletes shows that taking a combination of zinc 90 mg, magnesium 1350 mg, and vitamin B6 31.5 mg orally for 3 nights at bedtime does not change sleep quality, subjective sleepiness, mood, or fatigue when compared with placebo (113655).
• Substance use disorder. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for substance use disorder. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with opioid use disorder that were being treated with methadone shows that taking zinc sulfate, containing 12 mg zinc, orally daily for 3 months moderately improves relapse prevention scores, including drug use and drug craving scores, when compared with control. Taking zinc also modestly improved stress and anxiety scores (111293).
• Traumatic brain injury (TBI). There is limited evidence on the parenteral use of zinc for closed head injury. Details: A small clinical study shows that administering zinc parenterally immediately following severe closed head injury seems to improve the rate of neurological recovery when compared with standard therapy (2696).
• Tuberculosis. It is unclear if oral zinc can improve outcomes in patients receiving tuberculosis treatment. Details: Low levels of zinc are common in patients with tuberculosis. In patients newly diagnosed with tuberculosis and using anti-tuberculosis treatment, some clinical research shows that taking zinc 50 mg daily as zinc sulfate for 6 months increases the number of patients with negative sputum smears by 50% to 80% within the first 6 weeks of treatment when compared with placebo. However, there were no differences in the number of patients with negative smears after this time point. There were also improvements in some liver function enzyme levels after 2 months, but not 6 months, when compared with placebo (106238). However, other clinical research shows that taking zinc 15-90 mg daily for 2-6 months does not improve cure rates or sputum smear conversions when compared with placebo. However, when combined with vitamin A, serum levels of vitamin A, zinc, and hemoglobin were modestly improved and there was a modest increase in sputum smear conversions (109754).
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs). It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial in children with UTI. Details: A low-quality, clinical study in children aged 3-12 years hospitalized for a UTI and receiving intravenous antibiotic treatment shows that taking zinc 1 mg/kg daily for 14 days reduces the duration of dysuria, urinary frequency, and urgency when compared with intravenous antibiotics alone. Zinc does not improve fever or the time to negative urine culture (96081). However, this study did not demonstrate that treatment groups were equal at baseline.
• Venous leg ulcers. It is unclear if oral or topical zinc is beneficial for leg ulcer healing. Details: Two small studies in elderly patients with leg ulcers suggest that using a zinc saline solution on a wound dressing or applying zinc oxide to a dressing might improve healing of leg ulcers (2694,6901). However, oral zinc supplementation does not seem to be beneficial. A meta-analysis of four small clinical trials in patients with venous leg ulcers shows that taking zinc orally does not improve healing when compared with placebo (104079).
• Vertigo. Oral zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: Preliminary clinical research in adults with benign paroxysmal positional vertigo with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels less than 20 ng/mL shows that taking a specific combination product containing zinc 7.5 mg, alpha-lipoic acid 600 mg, L-carnosine 165 mg, curcumin 100 mg, piperine 1 mg, cholecalciferol 800 units, vitamin B2 0.8 mg, and vitamin B6 1 mg (Vertistop D, Difass) orally daily for 6 months moderately reduces the number of vertigo relapse episodes when compared with control. However, in patients with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels greater than 20 ng/mL that took a specific combination product containing zinc 7.5 mg, alanine 600 mg, L-carnosine 165 mg, curcumin 100 mg and piperine 1 mg (Vertistop L, Difass) orally daily for 6 months there was no difference in relapse episodes when compared with control (111294). It is unclear if this effect is due to zinc, other ingredients, or the combination.
• Water warts. It is unclear if oral zinc is beneficial for the treatment of water warts in children. Details: In children with water warts, preliminary clinical research shows that taking zinc sulfate heptahydrate (as Zinco syrup) for 2 months results in lesion resolution in 70% of patients when compared with baseline. Lesion resolution occurred in an additional 13% of patients in the month after treatment completion, with no recurrence in any of these children over the next 9 months. Zinc 3 mg daily was used in children up to 3 years of age, and 5 mg daily was used in older children (106234). Due to the lack of a comparator group, it is unclear if these outcomes are due to zinc or the natural resolution of the condition.
• Wound healing. Topical zinc might be beneficial for the healing of uncomplicated wounds. Details: A small clinical study shows that applying zinc chloride solution, standardized to contain zinc 20 mcg/mL, twice daily improves wound healing when compared with saline solution in patients with uncomplicated, skin wounds. However, when zinc is administered as a component of an insulin product (Humulin, Eli Lilly and Company), it seems to be more effective than zinc chloride alone (90192).
• Wrinkled skin. Topical zinc has only been evaluated in combination with other ingredients; its effect when used alone is unclear. Details: A topical preparation containing 10% vitamin C as L-ascorbic acid and acetyl tyrosine, zinc sulfate, sodium hyaluronate, and bioflavonoids (Cellex-C High Potency Serum) applied to photo-aged facial skin for 3 months seems to improve fine and coarse wrinkling, yellowing and sallowness, roughness, and skin tone when compared with placebo (6155). More evidence is needed to rate zinc for these uses.

(Read more about ZINC)

LIKELY SAFE ...when the flower is used in amounts found in foods. The flowers have Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912). Cooked, ripe fruit has few if any adverse effects (6).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when flowers are used orally for medicinal purposes (12).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when leaves, stems, or unripe fruit are used. All these parts contain cyanogenic glycosides (12). Limit juice consumption to avoid toxicity (6).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY UNSAFE
when the leaves, stems, or unripe fruit are used (6). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of the flower or cooked fruit; avoid using.

(Read more about AMERICAN ELDER)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally in the amounts typically found in foods. Elderberry has generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status in the US (4912).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when elderberry fruit extract is used orally, short-term. One specific elderberry fruit extract (Sambucol, Nature's Way) has been used with apparent safety for up to 5 days (5260,12235,103831); another (BerryPharma, Iprona AG) has been used with apparent safety for up to 15 days (91374). A specific elderberry fruit extract lozenge (ViraBLOC, HerbalScience) has been used with apparent safety for 2 days (17022). Other elderberry fruit extracts have been used with apparent safety for up to 12 weeks (21141,21142).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when elder tree leaves and stems, or unripe or uncooked elderberries, are consumed. The unripe green fruit, as well as the leaves and stems of the elder tree, contain a cyanide-producing chemical, which can cause serious toxicity (17020,17021,21143,21144,91374). Cooking eliminates the toxin.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when consumed in the amounts typically found in foods.

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY SAFE
when used orally for up to 3 days. A specific fruit extract (Sambucol, Nature's Way) has been used in doses of 15 mL twice daily for 3 days in children 5 years and older (5260,103831).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when unripe or uncooked elderberries are consumed. The unripe green fruit, as well as the leaves and stems of the elder tree, contain a cyanide-producing chemical , which can cause serious toxicity (17020,17021,21143,21144,91374). Cooking eliminates the toxin.

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when consumed in the amounts typically found in foods. There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of elderberry when used for medicinal purposes; avoid using in amounts greater than those found in foods.

(Read more about ELDERBERRY)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Sodium is safe in amounts that do not exceed the Chronic Disease Risk Reduction (CDRR) intake level of 2.3 grams daily (100310). Higher doses can be safely used therapeutically with appropriate medical monitoring (26226,26227).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in high doses. Tell patients to avoid exceeding the CDRR intake level of 2.3 grams daily (100310). Higher intake can cause hypertension and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (26229,98176,98177,98178,98181,98183,98184,100310,109395,109396,109398,109399). There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of sodium when used topically.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately (26229,100310). Sodium is safe in amounts that do not exceed the CDRR intake level of 1.2 grams daily for children 1 to 3 years, 1.5 grams daily for children 4 to 8 years, 1.8 grams daily for children 9 to 13 years, and 2.3 grams daily for adolescents (100310).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in high doses. Tell patients to avoid prolonged use of doses exceeding the CDRR intake level of 1.2 grams daily for children 1 to 3 years, 1.5 grams daily for children 4 to 8 years, 1.8 grams daily for children 9 to 13 years, and 2.3 grams daily for adolescents (100310). Higher intake can cause hypertension (26229).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. Sodium is safe in amounts that do not exceed the CDRR intake level of 2.3 grams daily (100310).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in higher doses. Higher intake can cause hypertension (100310). Also, both the highest and the lowest pre-pregnancy sodium quintile intakes are associated with an increased risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, including gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia, and the delivery of small for gestational age (SGA) infants when compared to the middle intake quintile (106264).

(Read more about SODIUM)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally, topically, intramuscularly, or intravenously and appropriately. Vitamin C is safe when taken orally in doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL). Tell patients not to exceed the UL of 2000 mg daily (1959,4713,4714,4844). ...when used intravenously or intramuscularly and appropriately. Injectable vitamin C is an FDA-approved prescription product (15).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used orally in excessive doses. Doses greater than the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 2000 mg daily can significantly increase the risk of adverse effects such as osmotic diarrhea and gastrointestinal upset (4844).

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately (4844,10352,14443).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive amounts. Tell patients not to use doses above the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 400 mg daily for children ages 1 to 3 years, 650 mg daily for children 4 to 8 years, 1200 mg daily for children 9 to 13 years, and 1800 mg daily for adolescents 14 to 18 years. Higher doses can cause osmotic diarrhea and gastrointestinal upset (4844).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately (4844).

PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in excessive doses. Tell patients over age 19 not to use doses exceeding the UL of 2000 mg daily when pregnant or breast-feeding and for those 14-18 years of age not to use doses exceeding 1800 mg daily when pregnant or breast-feeding. Higher doses can cause osmotic diarrhea and gastrointestinal upset. Large doses of vitamin C during pregnancy can also cause newborn scurvy (4844); avoid using.

(Read more about VITAMIN C)

LIKELY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately. Zinc is safe in amounts that do not exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 40 mg daily (7135). ...when used topically and appropriately (2688,6538,6539,7135,8623,11051,111291).

POSSIBLY SAFE ...when used orally and appropriately in doses higher than the tolerable upper intake level (UL). Because the UL of zinc is based on regular daily intake, short-term excursions above 40 mg daily are not likely to be harmful. In fact, there is some evidence that doses of elemental zinc as high as 80 mg daily in combination with copper 2 mg can be used safely for approximately 6 years without significant adverse effects (7303,8622,92212). However, there is some concern that doses higher than the UL of 40 mg daily might decrease copper absorption and result in anemia (7135).

POSSIBLY UNSAFE ...when used intranasally. Case reports and animal research suggest that intranasal zinc might cause permanent anosmia or loss of sense of smell (11155,11156,11703,11704,11705,11706,11707,16800,16801,17083). Several hundred reports of anosmia have been submitted to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the manufacturer of some intranasal zinc products (Zicam) (16800,16801). Advise patients not to use intranasal zinc products.

LIKELY UNSAFE ...when taken orally in excessive amounts. Ingestion of 10-30 grams of zinc sulfate can be lethal in adults (7135). Chronic intake of 450-1600 mg daily can cause multiple forms of anemia, copper deficiency, and myeloneuropathies (7135,17092,17093,112473). This has been reported with use of zinc-containing denture adhesives in amounts exceeding the labeled directions, such as several times a day for several years (17092,17093). Advise patients to follow the label directions on denture adhesives that contain zinc.

CHILDREN: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately (7135). Zinc is safe in amounts that do not exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL). The UL for children is based on age: 4 mg daily for 0-6 months, 5 mg daily for 7-12 months, 7 mg daily for 1-3 years, 12 mg daily for 4-8 years, 23 mg daily for 9-13 years, and 34 mg daily for 14-18 years (7135,97140).

CHILDREN: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in high doses. Taking amounts greater than the UL can cause sideroblastic anemia and copper deficiency (7135). ...when used topically on damaged skin. An infant treated with 10% zinc oxide ointment for severe diaper rash with perianal erosions developed hyperzincemia. Absorption seemed to occur mainly via the erosions; plasma levels dropped after the erosions healed despite continued use of the ointment (106905).

PREGNANCY: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. Zinc is safe in amounts that do not exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 34 mg daily during pregnancy in those 14-18 years of age and 40 mg daily in those 19-50 years of age (7135).

PREGNANCY: LIKELY UNSAFE
when used orally in doses exceeding the UL (7135).

LACTATION: LIKELY SAFE
when used orally and appropriately. Zinc is safe in amounts that do not exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 34 mg daily during lactation in those 14-18 years of age, and 40 mg daily for those 19-50 years of age (7135).

LACTATION: POSSIBLY UNSAFE
when used orally in doses exceeding the UL. Higher doses can cause zinc-induced copper deficiency in nursing infants (7135).

(Read more about ZINC)

(Read more about AMERICAN ELDER)

IMMUNOSUPPRESSANTS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Theoretically, elderberry might interfere with immunosuppressant therapy due to its immunostimulant activity.  Details Elderberry has immunostimulant activity, increasing the production of cytokines, including interleukin and tumor necrosis factor (10796).

PAZOPANIB (Votrient) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, elderberry might interact with pazopanib, potentially increasing the risk of adverse effects.  Details In one case, a 65-year-old patient taking pazopanib for 4 weeks for soft-tissue sarcoma developed severe nausea, loose stools, and elevated alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels and was diagnosed with grade 3 liver injury. The patient reported taking elderberry supplements for 2 years, dose unspecified, and was also taking a multivitamin and a calcium supplement. The patient's symptoms and liver enzyme levels improved upon discontinuation of pazopanib and all supplements. Pazopanib treatment was re-initiated, at a lower dose, with no further evidence of liver injury. It was unclear in this case report if the elderberry supplements were derived from the berry, the flower, or the combination (113939).

(Read more about ELDERBERRY)

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = A Theoretically, a high intake of dietary sodium might reduce the effectiveness of antihypertensive drugs.  Details High intake of dietary sodium can increase systolic and diastolic blood pressure (26222). Also, high intake of sodium may necessitate increased use of antihypertensive medications to achieve blood pressure control in some patients, such as those with chronic kidney disease (26223).

CORTICOSTEROIDS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Concomitant use of mineralocorticoids and some glucocorticoids with sodium supplements might increase the risk of hypernatremia.  Details Mineralocorticoids and some glucocorticoids (corticosteroids) cause sodium retention. This effect is dose-related and depends on mineralocorticoid potency. It is most common with hydrocortisone, cortisone, and fludrocortisone, followed by prednisone and prednisolone (4425).

LITHIUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Altering dietary intake of sodium might alter the levels and clinical effects of lithium.  Details High sodium intake can reduce plasma concentrations of lithium by increasing lithium excretion (26225). Reducing sodium intake can significantly increase plasma concentrations of lithium and cause lithium toxicity in patients being treated with lithium carbonate (26224,26225). Stabilizing sodium intake is shown to reduce the percentage of patients with lithium level fluctuations above 0.8 mEq/L (112909). Patients taking lithium should avoid significant alterations in their dietary intake of sodium.

SODIUM-CONTAINING DRUGS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Concomitant use of sodium-containing drugs with additional sodium from dietary or supplemental sources may increase the risk of hypernatremia and long-term sodium-related complications.  Details The Chronic Disease Risk Reduction (CDRR) intake level of 2.3 grams of sodium daily indicates the intake at which it is believed that chronic disease risk increases for the apparently healthy population (100310). Some medications contain high quantities of sodium. When used in conjunction with sodium supplements or high-sodium diets, the CDRR may be exceeded. Additionally, concomitant use may increase the risk for hypernatremia; this risk is highest in the elderly and people with other risk factors for electrolyte disturbances.

TOLVAPTAN (Samsca) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = C Theoretically, concomitant use of tolvaptan with sodium might increase the risk of hypernatremia.  Details Tolvaptan is a vasopressin receptor 2 antagonist that is used to increase sodium levels in patients with hyponatremia (29406). Patients taking tolvaptan should use caution with the use of sodium salts such as sodium chloride.

(Read more about SODIUM)

ACETAMINOPHEN (Tylenol, others) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Insignificant •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B High-dose vitamin C might slightly prolong the clearance of acetaminophen.  Details A small pharmacokinetic study in healthy volunteers shows that taking high-dose vitamin C (3 grams) 1.5 hours after taking acetaminophen 1 gram slightly increases the apparent half-life of acetaminophen from around 2.3 hours to 3.1 hours. Ascorbic acid competitively inhibits sulfate conjugation of acetaminophen. However, to compensate, elimination of acetaminophen glucuronide and unconjugated acetaminophen increases (6451). This effect is not likely to be clinically significant.

ALKYLATING AGENTS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, antioxidant effects of vitamin C might reduce the effectiveness of alkylating agents.  Details The use of antioxidants like vitamin C during chemotherapy is controversial. There is concern that antioxidants could reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs that generate free radicals, such as cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, carmustine, busulfan, and thiotepa (391). In contrast, some researchers theorize that antioxidants might make chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that could interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells (14012,14013). More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, antioxidants such as vitamin C have on chemotherapy.

ALUMINUM Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Vitamin C can increase the amount of aluminum absorbed from aluminum compounds.  Details Research in animals and humans shows that vitamin C increases aluminum absorption, theoretically by chelating aluminum and keeping it in solution where it is available for absorption (10549,10550,10551,21556). In people with normal renal function, urinary excretion of aluminum will likely increase, making aluminum retention and toxicity unlikely (10549). Patients with renal failure who take aluminum-containing compounds such as phosphate binders should avoid vitamin C supplements in doses above the recommended dietary allowances.

ANTITUMOR ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, the antioxidant effects of vitamin C might reduce the effectiveness of antitumor antibiotics.  Details The use of antioxidants like vitamin C during chemotherapy is controversial. There is concern that antioxidants could reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs which generate free radicals, such as doxorubicin (391). In contrast, some researchers theorize that antioxidants might make chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that could interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells (14012,14013). More evidence is needed to determine what effects, if any, antioxidants such as vitamin C have on chemotherapy.

ASPIRIN Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Insignificant •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Acidification of the urine by vitamin C might increase aspirin levels.  Details It has been suggested that acidification of the urine by vitamin C could increase reabsorption of salicylates by the renal tubules, and increase plasma salicylate levels (3046). However, short-term use of up to 6 grams daily of vitamin C does not seem to affect urinary pH or salicylate excretion (10588,10589), suggesting this interaction is not clinically significant.

CHOLINE MAGNESIUM TRISALICYLATE (Trilisate) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Insignificant •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Acidification of the urine by vitamin C might increase choline magnesium trisalicylate levels.  Details It has been suggested that acidification of the urine by vitamin C could increase reabsorption of salicylates by the renal tubules, and increase plasma salicylate levels (3046,4531). However, short-term use of up to 6 grams daily of vitamin C does not seem to affect urinary pH or salicylate excretion (10588,10589), suggesting this interaction probably is not clinically significant.

ESTROGENS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Vitamin C might increase blood levels of estrogens.  Details Increases in plasma estrogen levels of up to 55% occur under some circumstances when vitamin C is taken concurrently with oral contraceptives or hormone replacement therapy, including topical products (129,130,11161). It is suggested that vitamin C prevents oxidation of estrogen in the tissues, regenerates oxidized estrogen, and reduces sulfate conjugation of estrogen in the gut wall (129,11161). When tissue levels of vitamin C are high, these processes are already maximized and supplemental vitamin C does not have any effect on estrogen levels. Increases in plasma estrogen levels may occur when patients who are deficient in vitamin C take supplements (11161). Monitor these patients for estrogen-related side effects.

FLUPHENAZINE (Prolixin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, vitamin C might decrease levels of fluphenazine.  Details In one patient there was a clinically significant decrease in fluphenazine levels when vitamin C (500 mg twice daily) was started (11017). The mechanism is not known, and there is no further data to confirm this interaction.

INDINAVIR (Crixivan) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Vitamin C can modestly reduce indinavir levels.  Details One pharmacokinetic study shows that taking vitamin C 1 gram orally once daily along with indinavir 800 mg orally three times daily reduces the area under the concentration-time curve of indinavir by 14%. The mechanism of this interaction is unknown, but it is unlikely to be clinically significant in most patients. The effect of higher doses of vitamin C on indinavir levels is unknown (11300,93578).

LEVOTHYROXINE (Synthroid, others) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Vitamin C can increase levothyroxine absorption.  Details Two clinical studies in adults with poorly controlled hypothyroidism show that swallowing levothyroxine with a glass of water containing vitamin C 500-1000 mg in solution reduces thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels and increases thyroxine (T4) levels when compared with taking levothyroxine alone. This suggests that vitamin C increases the oral absorption of levothyroxine, possibly due to a reduction in pH (102978).

NIACIN Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = A Vitamin C might decrease the beneficial effects of niacin on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels.  Details A combination of niacin and simvastatin (Zocor) effectively raises HDL cholesterol levels in patients with coronary disease and low HDL levels. Clinical research shows that taking a combination of antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, and selenium) along with niacin and simvastatin (Zocor) attenuates this rise in HDL, specifically the HDL-2 and apolipoprotein A1 fractions, by more than 50% in patients with coronary disease (7388,11537). It is not known whether this adverse effect is due to a single antioxidant such as vitamin C, or to the combination. It also is not known whether it will occur in other patient populations.

SALSALATE (Disalcid) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Insignificant •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = B Acidification of the urine by vitamin C might increase salsalate levels.  Details It has been suggested that acidification of the urine by vitamin C could increase reabsorption of salicylates by the renal tubules, and increase plasma salicylate levels (3046). However, short-term use of up to 6 grams/day vitamin C does not seem to affect urinary pH or salicylate excretion (10588,10589), suggesting this interaction probably is not clinically significant.

WARFARIN (Coumadin) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D High-dose vitamin C might reduce the levels and effectiveness of warfarin.  Details Vitamin C in high doses may cause diarrhea and possibly reduce warfarin absorption (11566). There are reports of two people who took up to 16 grams daily of vitamin C and had a reduction in prothrombin time (9804,9806). Lower doses of 5-10 grams daily can also reduce warfarin absorption. In many cases, this does not seem to be clinically significant (9805,9806,11566,11567). However, a case of warfarin resistance has been reported for a patient who took vitamin C 500 mg twice daily. Cessation of vitamin C supplementation resulted in a rapid increase in international normalized ratio (INR) (90942). Tell patients taking warfarin to avoid taking vitamin C in excessively high doses (greater than 10 grams daily). Lower doses may be safe, but the anticoagulation activity of warfarin should be monitored. Patients who are stabilized on warfarin while taking vitamin C should avoid adjusting vitamin C dosage to prevent the possibility of warfarin resistance.

(Read more about VITAMIN C)

AMILORIDE (Midamor) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Insignificant •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Amiloride can modestly reduce zinc excretion and increase zinc levels.  Details Clinical research shows that amiloride can reduce urinary zinc excretion, especially at doses of 10 mg per day or more. This zinc-sparing effect can help to counteract zinc losses caused by thiazide diuretics, but it is unlikely to cause zinc toxicity at usual amiloride doses (830,11626,11627,11634). The other potassium-sparing diuretics, spironolactone (Aldactone) and triamterene (Dyrenium), do not seem to have a zinc-sparing effect.

ATAZANAVIR (Reyataz) Interaction Rating = Minor Be watchful with this combination. Severity = Insignificant •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Zinc modestly reduces levels of atazanavir, although this effect does not seem to be clinically significant.  Details Clinical research shows that zinc might decrease serum atazanavir levels by chelating with atazanavir in the gut and preventing its absorption (93578). Although a single dose of zinc sulfate (Solvazinc tablets) 125 mg orally does not affect atazanavir concentrations in patients being treated with atazanavir/ritonavir, co-administration of zinc sulfate 125 mg daily for 2 weeks reduces plasma levels of atazanavir by about 22% in these patients. However, despite this decrease, atazanavir levels still remain at high enough concentrations for the prevention of HIV virus replication (90216).

CEPHALEXIN (Keflex) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Zinc might decrease cephalexin levels by chelating with cephalexin in the gut and preventing its absorption.  Details A pharmacokinetic study shows that zinc sulfate 250 mg taken concomitantly with cephalexin 500 mg decreases peak levels of cephalexin by 31% and reduces the exposure to cephalexin by 27%. Also, taking zinc sulfate 3 hours before cephalexin decreases peak levels of cephalexin by 11% and reduces the exposure to cephalexin by 18%. By decreasing cephalexin levels, zinc might increase the risk of treatment failure. This effect does not occur when zinc is taken 3 hours after the cephalexin dose (94163). To avoid an interaction, advise patients take zinc sulfate 3 hours after taking cephalexin.

CISPLATIN (Platinol-AQ) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, zinc might interfere with the therapeutic effects of cisplatin.  Details Animal research suggests that zinc stimulates tumor cell production of the protein metallothionein, which binds and inactivates cisplatin (11624,11625). It is not known whether zinc supplements or high dietary zinc intake can cause clinically significant interference with cisplatin therapy. Cisplatin might also increase zinc excretion.

INTEGRASE INHIBITORS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = High •  Occurrence = Possible •  Level of Evidence = D Theoretically, taking zinc along with integrase inhibitors might decrease the levels and clinical effects of these drugs.  Details Zinc is a divalent cation. Pharmacokinetic studies have shown that other divalent cations such as calcium and iron can decrease blood levels of the integrase inhibitor dolutegravir through chelation (93578,93579).

PENICILLAMINE (Cuprimine, Depen) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Zinc might reduce the levels and clinical effects of penicillamine.  Details By forming an insoluble complex with penicillamine, zinc interferes with penicillamine absorption and activity. Zinc supplements reduce the efficacy of low-dose penicillamine (0.5-1 gram/day), but do not seem to affect higher doses (1-2.75 gram/day), provided dosing times are separated (2678,4534,11605). Advise patients to take zinc and penicillamine at least 2 hours apart.

QUINOLONE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Zinc can decrease the levels and clinical effects of quinolones antibiotics.  Details Quinolones form complexes with zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, reducing absorption of both the quinolone and zinc if taken at the same time (828,2682,3046,11600). Advise patients to take these drugs at least 2 hours before, or 4-6 hours after, zinc supplements.

RITONAVIR (Norvir) Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Mild •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Zinc modestly reduces levels of ritonavir.  Details Clinical research shows that zinc might reduce serum ritonavir levels by chelating with ritonavir in the gut and preventing its absorption (93578). In patients with HIV, ritonavir is taken with atazanavir to prevent the metabolism and increase the effects of atazanavir. A pharmacokinetic study shows that, in patients being treated with atazanavir/ritonavir, co-administration of zinc sulfate (Solvazinc tablets) 125 mg as a single dose or as multiple daily doses for 2 weeks reduces plasma levels of ritonavir by about 16% (90216). However, atazanavir levels still remains high enough to prevent HIV virus replication. Therefore, the decrease in ritonavir levels is not likely to be clinically significant.

TETRACYCLINE ANTIBIOTICS Interaction Rating = Moderate Be cautious with this combination. Severity = Moderate •  Occurrence = Probable •  Level of Evidence = B Zinc might reduce levels of tetracycline antibiotics.  Details Tetracyclines form complexes with zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, which can reduce absorption of both the tetracycline and zinc when taken at the same time (3046,4945). Taking zinc sulfate 200 mg with tetracycline reduces absorption of the antibiotic by 30% to 40% (11615). Demeclocycline and minocycline cause a similar interaction (4945). However, doxycycline does not seem to interact significantly with zinc (11615). Advise patients to take tetracyclines at least 2 hours before, or 4-6 hours after, zinc supplements to avoid any interactions.

(Read more about ZINC)

General ...Orally, ingesting several glasses of American elderberry juice can cause nausea, vomiting, weakness, dizziness, numbness, and stupor (6).

(Read more about AMERICAN ELDER)

General ...Orally, elderberry extracts prepared from ripe fruit seem to be well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: When adverse effects occur, they are likely due to ingestion of raw and unripe elderberries, or seeds, leaves, and other plant parts. Due to cyanogenic glycosides, these may cause nausea, vomiting, severe diarrhea, weakness, dizziness, numbness, and stupor. Cooking eliminates the toxin.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, nausea and vomiting have been reported after consuming a specific elderberry and echinacea product Vogel Bioforce AG) (95650). However, it is unclear if this was due to the elderberry or Echinacea contained in the product.
Raw and unripe elderberries, and the seeds, leaves, and other elder tree parts might cause nausea, vomiting, or severe diarrhea due to cyanogenic glycosides (17020,17021). Cooking eliminates the toxin.

Hepatic ...In one case report, a 60-year-old female with underlying autoimmune disease presented with autoimmune hepatitis after taking elderberry at an unknown dose for several years. The patient presented with nausea, jaundice, abdominal pain, and abdominal distention. Liver function tests returned to baseline 4 weeks after initiating treatment with prednisone 40 mg daily and discontinuing elderberry (110123).

Immunologic ...Elder tree pollen might cause an allergic reaction characterized by rhinitis and dyspnea in some patients who are allergic to grass pollen. These patients might also experience an allergic reaction to elderberry extracts (11095).

Neurologic/CNS ...Raw and unripe elderberries might cause weakness, dizziness, numbness, and stupor due to cyanogenic glycosides (17020,17021). Cooking eliminates the toxin.

(Read more about ELDERBERRY)

General ...Orally, sodium is well tolerated when used in moderation at intakes up to the Chronic Disease Risk Reduction (CDRR) intake level. Topically, a thorough evaluation of safety outcomes has not been conducted.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: Worsened cardiovascular disease, hypertension, kidney disease.

Cardiovascular ...Orally, intake of sodium above the CDRR intake level can exacerbate hypertension and hypertension-related cardiovascular disease (CVD) (26229,98176,100310,106263). A meta-analysis of observational research has found a linear association between increased sodium intake and increased hypertension risk (109398). Observational research has also found an association between increased sodium salt intake and increased risk of CVD, mortality, and cardiovascular mortality (98177,98178,98181,98183,98184,109395,109396,109399). However, the existing research is unable to confirm a causal relationship between sodium intake and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality; high-quality, prospective research is needed to clarify this relationship (100312). As there is no known benefit with increased salt intake that would outweigh the potential increased risk of CVD, advise patients to limit salt intake to no more than the CDRR intake level (100310).
A reduction in sodium intake can lower systolic blood pressure by a small amount in most individuals, and diastolic blood pressure in patients with hypertension (100310,100311,106261). However, post hoc analysis of a small crossover clinical study in White patients suggests that 24-hour blood pressure variability is not affected by high-salt intake compared with low-salt intake (112910). Additionally, the available research is insufficient to confirm that a further reduction in sodium intake below the CDRR intake level will lower the risk for chronic disease (100310,100311). A meta-analysis of clinical research shows that reducing sodium intake increases levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides, but not low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, by a small amount (106261).
It is unclear whether there are safety concerns when sodium is consumed in amounts lower than the adequate intake (AI) levels. Some observational research has found that the lowest levels of sodium intake might be associated with increased risk of death and cardiovascular events (98181,98183). However, this finding has been criticized because some of the studies used inaccurate measures of sodium intake, such as the Kawasaki formula (98177,98178,101259). Some observational research has found that sodium intake based on a single 24-hour urinary measurement is inversely correlated with all-cause mortality (106260). The National Academies Consensus Study Report states that there is insufficient evidence from observational studies to conclude that there are harmful effects from low sodium intake (100310).

Endocrine ...Orally, a meta-analysis of observational research has found that higher sodium intake is associated with an average increase in body mass index (BMI) of 1. 24 kg/m2 and an approximate 5 cm increase in waist circumference (98182). It has been hypothesized that the increase in BMI is related to an increased thirst, resulting in an increased intake of sugary beverages and/or consumption of foods that are high in salt and also high in fat and energy (98182). One large observational study has found that the highest sodium intake is not associated with overweight or obesity when compared to the lowest intake in adolescents aged 12-19 years when intake of energy and sugar-sweetened beverages are considered (106265). However, in children aged 6-11 years, usual sodium intake is positively associated with increased weight and central obesity independently of the intake of energy and/or sugar-sweetened beverages (106265).

Gastrointestinal ...In one case report, severe gastritis and a deep antral ulcer occurred in a patient who consumed 16 grams of sodium chloride in one sitting (25759). Chronic use of high to moderately high amounts of sodium chloride has been associated with an increased risk of gastric cancer (29405).

Musculoskeletal ...Observational research has found that low sodium levels can increase the risk for osteoporosis. One study has found that low plasma sodium levels are associated with an increased risk for osteoporosis. Low levels, which are typically caused by certain disease states or chronic medications, are associated with a more than 2-fold increased odds for osteoporosis and bone fractures (101260).
Conversely, in healthy males on forced bed rest, a high intake of sodium chloride (7.7 mEq/kg daily) seems to exacerbate disuse-induced bone and muscle loss (25760,25761).

Oncologic ...Population research has found that high or moderately high intake of sodium chloride is associated with an increased risk of gastric cancer when compared with low sodium chloride intake (29405). Other population research in patients with gastric cancer has found that a high intake of sodium is associated with an approximate 65% increased risk of gastric cancer mortality when compared with a low intake. When zinc intake is taken into consideration, the increased risk of mortality only occurred in those with low zinc intake, but the risk was increased to approximately 2-fold in this sub-population (109400).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...In patients with hypertension, population research has found that sodium excretion is modestly and positively associated with having moderate or severe obstructive sleep apnea. This association was not found in normotensive patients (106262).

Renal ...Increased sodium intake has been associated with impaired kidney function in healthy adults. This effect seems to be independent of blood pressure. Observational research has found that a high salt intake over approximately 5 years is associated with a 29% increased risk of developing impaired kidney function when compared with a lower salt intake. In this study, high salt intake was about 2-fold higher than low salt intake (101261).

(Read more about SODIUM)

General ...Orally, intravenously, and topically, vitamin C is well-tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal cramps, esophagitis, heartburn, headache, osmotic diarrhea, nausea, vomiting. Kidney stones have been reported in those prone to kidney stones. Adverse effects are more likely to occur at doses above the tolerable upper intake level of 2 grams daily.
Topically: Irritation and tingling.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: There have been rare case reports of carotid inner wall thickening after large doses of vitamin C.
Intravenously: There have been case reports of hyperoxalosis and oxalate nephropathy following high-dose infusions of vitamin C.

Cardiovascular ...Evidence from population research has found that high doses of supplemental vitamin C might not be safe for some people. In postmenopausal adults with diabetes, supplemental vitamin C intake in doses greater than 300 mg per day is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular mortality. However, dietary intake of vitamin C is not associated with this risk. Also, vitamin C intake is not associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular mortality in patients without diabetes (12498).
Oral supplementation with vitamin C has also been associated with an increased rate of carotid inner wall thickening in men. There is preliminary evidence that supplemental intake of vitamin C 500 mg daily for 18 months can cause a 2.5-fold increased rate of carotid inner wall thickening in non-smoking men and a 5-fold increased rate in men who smoked. The men in this study were 40-60 years old (1355). This effect was not associated with vitamin C from dietary sources (1355).
There is also some concern that vitamin C may increase the risk of hypertension in some patients. A meta-analysis of clinical research suggests that, in pregnant patients at risk of pre-eclampsia, oral intake of vitamin C along with vitamin E increases the risk of gestational hypertension (83450). Other clinical research shows that oral intake of vitamin C along with grape seed polyphenols can increase both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in hypertensive patients (13162).

Dental ...Orally, vitamin C, particularly chewable tablets, has been associated with dental erosion (83484).

Dermatologic ...Topically, vitamin C might cause tingling or irritation at the site of application (6166). A liquid containing vitamin C 20%, red raspberry leaf cell culture extract 0.0005%, and vitamin E 1% (Antioxidant and Collagen Booster Serum, Max Biocare Pty Ltd.) has been reported to cause mild tingling and skin tightness (102355). It is unclear if these effects are due to vitamin C, the other ingredients, or the combination.

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, the adverse effects of vitamin C are dose-related and include nausea, vomiting, esophagitis, heartburn, abdominal cramps, gastrointestinal obstruction, and diarrhea. Doses greater than the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 2000 mg per day can increase the risk of adverse effects such as osmotic diarrhea and severe gastrointestinal upset (3042,4844,96707,104450). Mineral forms of vitamin C, such as calcium ascorbate (Ester-C), seem to cause fewer gastrointestinal adverse effects than regular vitamin C (83358). In a case report, high dose intravenous vitamin C was associated with increased thirst (96709).

Genitourinary ...Orally, vitamin C may cause precipitation of urate, oxalate, or cysteine stones or drugs in the urinary tract (10356). Hyperoxaluria, hyperuricosuria, hematuria, and crystalluria have occurred in people taking 1 gram or more per day (3042,90943). Supplemental vitamin C over 250 mg daily has been associated with higher risk for kidney stones in males. There was no clear association found in females, but the analysis might not have been adequately powered to evaluate this outcome (104029). In people with a history of oxalate kidney stones, supplemental vitamin C 1 gram per day appears to increase kidney stone risk by 40% (12653). A case of hematuria, high urine oxalate excretion, and the presence of a ureteral stone has been reported for a 9-year-old male who had taken about 3 grams of vitamin C daily since 3 years of age. The condition resolved with cessation of vitamin C intake (90936).

Hematologic ...Prolonged use of large amounts of vitamin C can result in increased metabolism of vitamin C; subsequent reduction in vitamin C intake may precipitate the development of scurvy (15). In one case, a patient with septic shock and a large intraperitoneal hematoma developed moderate hemolysis and increased methemoglobin 12 hours after a high-dose vitamin C infusion. The patient received a blood transfusion and the hemolysis resolved spontaneously over 48 hours (112479).

Neurologic/CNS ...Orally, the adverse effects of vitamin C are dose-related and include fatigue, headache, insomnia, and sleepiness (3042,4844,83475,83476).

Renal ...Hyperoxalosis and oxalate nephropathy have been reported following high-dose infusions of vitamin C. Hyperoxalosis and acute kidney failure contributed to the death of a 76-year-old patient with metastatic adenocarcinoma of the lung who received 10 courses of intravenous infusions containing vitamins, including vitamin C and other supplements over a period of 1 month. Dosages of vitamin C were not specified but were presumed to be high-dose (106618). In another case, a 34-year-old patient with a history of kidney transplant and cerebral palsy was found unresponsive during outpatient treatment for a respiratory tract infection. The patient was intubated for acute hypoxemic respiratory failure, initiated on vasopressors, hydrocortisone, and antibacterial therapy, and received 16 doses of vitamin C 1.5 grams. Serum creatinine level peaked at greater than 3 times baseline and the patient required hemodialysis for oliguria and uncontrolled acidosis. Kidney biopsy revealed oxalate nephropathy with concomitant drug-induced interstitial nephritis (106625). In another case, a 41-year-old patient with a history of kidney transplant presented with fever, nausea, and decreased urine output 4 days after receiving intravenous vitamin C 7 grams for urothelial carcinoma. Serum creatinine levels increased from 1.7 mg/dL to 7.3 mg/dL over those 4 days, and hemodialysis was initiated 3 days after admission due to anuria. Renal biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of acute oxalate nephropathy (109962).

Other ...Intravenously, hypernatremia and falsely elevated ketone levels is reported in a patient with septic shock and chronic kidney disease after a high-dose vitamin C infusion. The hypernatremia resolved over 24 hours after cessation of the infusion (112479).

(Read more about VITAMIN C)

General ...Orally, zinc is well tolerated in doses below the tolerable upper intake level (UL), which is 40 mg daily for adults. Topically, zinc is well tolerated.
Most Common Adverse Effects:
Orally: Abdominal cramps, diarrhea, metallic taste, nausea and vomiting (dose-related).
Topically: Burning, discoloration, itching, stinging, and tingling when applied to irritated tissue.
Intranasally: Bad taste, dry mouth, headache, irritation, reduced sense of smell.
Serious Adverse Effects (Rare):
Orally: There have been cases of acute renal tubular necrosis, interstitial nephritis, neurological complications, severe vomiting, and sideroblastic anemia after zinc overdose.
Intranasally: There have been cases where intranasal zinc caused permanent loss of smell (anosmia).

Dermatologic ...Topically, zinc can cause burning, stinging, itching, and tingling when applied to inflamed tissue (6911,8623,87297). Zinc oxide can be deposited in the submucosal tissue and cause dark discoloration of the skin. This can occur with prolonged topical application to intact skin, application to eroded or ulcerated skin, or penetrating traumatic exposure, and also parenteral administration (8618).
In rare cases, oral zinc has resulted in worsened acne (104056), skin sensitivity (6592), a leishmanial reaction with a macular rash that occurred on exposed parts of the body (86935), eczema (104055), systemic contact dermatitis (109457), and the development of severe seborrheic dermatitis (86946).

Gastrointestinal ...Orally, zinc can cause nausea (338,2663,2681,6592,6700,18216,106230,106233,106227,113661), vomiting (2663,2681,6519,6592,96069,96074), a metallic or objectionable taste in the mouth (336,338,6700,11350,18216,106902,113661), abdominal cramping (6592,96069), indigestion (87227), heartburn (96069), dry mouth (87533), and mouth irritation (336,2619). When used orally in amounts above the tolerable upper intake level, zinc may cause irritation and corrosion of the gastrointestinal tract (331,86982,87315,106902), watery diarrhea (1352), epigastric pain (2663,2681), and severe vomiting (2663,2681).
Intranasally, zinc can cause bad taste, dry mouth, and burning and irritation of the throat (8628,8629).
When used topically as a mouth rinse, zinc may cause tooth staining (90206).

Hematologic ...There is concern that high daily doses of zinc, above the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 40 mg per day, might increase the risk of copper deficiency, potentially leading to anemia and leukopenia (7135,112473). To prevent copper deficiency, some clinicians give a small dose of copper when zinc is used in high doses, long-term (7303).

Hepatic ...There are two cases of liver deterioration in patients with Wilson disease following initiation of treatment with zinc 50-200 mg three times daily. The mechanism of action is not understood, and the event is extremely uncommon (86927,87470).

Immunologic ...Daily doses of 300 mg of supplemental zinc for 6 weeks appear to impair immune response (7135). A case of erythematosus-like syndrome, including symptoms such as fever, leg ulcers, and rash, has been reported following intake of effervescent tablets (Solvezink) containing zinc 45 mg (87506). In another case, severe neutropenia was reported after taking supplemental zinc 900 mg daily for an unknown duration (112473).

Musculoskeletal ...Orally, zinc may cause body aches in children (113661).

Neurologic/CNS ...Zinc-containing denture adhesives can cause toxicity if used more frequently than recommended for several years. Case reports describe hyperzincemia, low copper levels, blood dyscrasias, and neurological problems, including sensory disturbances, numbness, tingling, limb weakness, and difficulty walking in patients applying denture adhesive multiple times daily for several years (17092,17093,90205,90233). Due to reports of zinc toxicity associated with use of excessive amounts of zinc-containing denture adhesives for several years, GlaxoSmithKline has reformulated Polygrip products to remove their zinc content (17092,17093).
Intranasally (8628) and orally (87534), zinc can cause headache. When used orally in amounts above the tolerable upper intake level (UL), zinc may cause central nervous system (CNS) symptoms including lethargy, fatigue, neuropathy, dizziness, and paresthesia (2663,2681,87369,87470,87533,87534,112473).

Oncologic ...There is concern that zinc might worsen prostate disease. For example, some preliminary evidence suggests that higher dietary zinc intake increases the risk for benign prostatic hyperplasia (6908). Epidemiological evidence suggests that taking more than 100 mg of supplemental zinc daily or taking supplemental zinc for 10 or more years doubles the risk of developing prostate cancer (10306). Another large-scale population study also suggests that men who take a multivitamin more than 7 times per week and who also take a separate zinc supplement have a significantly increased risk of prostate cancer-related mortality (15607). However, a large analysis of population research suggests that there is no association between zinc intake and the risk of prostate cancer (96075).

Pulmonary/Respiratory ...There are several hundred reports of complete loss of sense of smell (anosmia) that may be permanent with use of zinc gluconate nasal gel, such as Zicam (11306,11155,11707,16800,16801,17083,86999,87535). Loss of sense of smell is thought to be dose related but has also been reported following a single application (11306,11155,11707,16800). Patients often report having sniffed deeply when applying the gel, then experiencing an immediate burning sensation, and noticing anosmia within 48 hours (17083). On June 16, 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advised patients not to use a specific line of commercial zinc nasal products (Zicam) after receiving 130 reports of loss of smell (16800). The manufacturer of these products had also received several hundred reports of loss of smell related to its intranasal zinc products (16801). Zinc sulfate nasal spray was used unsuccessfully for polio prophylaxis before the polio vaccine was developed. It caused loss of smell and/or taste, which was sometimes permanent (11713). Animal studies suggest that zinc sulfate negatively affects smell, possibly by damaging the olfactory epithelium and neurons (11156,11703,11704,11705,11706). Zinc gluconate nasal spray has not been tested for safety in animals or humans. The clinical studies of intranasal zinc have not described anosmia as an adverse effect, but testing was not done to see if zinc use adversely affected sense of smell (6471,8628,8629,10247). Also, these clinical studies reported tingling or burning sensation in the nostril, dry nose, nose pain, and nosebleeds.
When used in amounts above the tolerable upper intake level (UL), zinc may cause flu-like symptoms including coughing (2663).

Renal ...In overdose, zinc can cause acute renal tubular necrosis and interstitial nephritis (331,1352,87338).

Other ...Occupational inhalation of zinc oxide fumes can cause metal fume fever with symptoms including fatigue, chills, fever, myalgias, cough, dyspnea, leukocytosis, thirst, metallic taste, and salivation (331).

(Read more about ZINC)